Impact of Promotional Costs on Company’s Profitability

The purpose of this paper is to theoretically identify and delineate the specifics of various costs of promotion and to assess their influence on company’s profitability, assuming that the companies that invest more in promotional activities generate higher income and more profit. In addition, the current study will examine whether there is a difference in the amount of investment in promotion with respect to the legal structure and the size of the company, starting from the assumption that large enterprises and public limited companies have more funds at their disposal, and consequently invest more in promotional activities. The study was conducted on a random sample of 67 companies in 2012, and the obtained results show that the share of promotion in the overall costs significantly affects company’s profitability, while there is no significant difference in promotional investment neither regarding the legal structure nor the size of the company

Histological, MRI and transcriptome analysis of the reorganizational processes in the developing human hippocampus

Hipokampalna formacija u ljudskom mozgu pokazuje različitu laminarnu organizaciju tijekom razvitka u odnosu na lateralna kortikalna područja. Za razliku od neokortikalnih regija, subplate zona u hipokampalnoj formaciji je slabo razvijena, te rana urastajuća vlakna prema hipokampusu završavaju u istaknutoj marginalnoj zoni, uspostavljajući tamo sinapse s apikalnim dendritima glavnih hipokampalnih neurona. Naša studija opisala je složenu organizaciju peteroslojne MZ hipokampalnog primordija čovjeka u ranom fetalnom razdoblju. Duboki slojevi MZ pokazuju ekspresiju sinaptičkog markera sinaptofizina kao i markere postmitotičkih neurona već u 12. TNZ koji mogu biti postsinaptički elementi nadolazećih aferentnih vlakana. MZ je najrazvijenija fetalna zona hipokampusa te od srednjeg fetalnog razdoblja pa nadalje čini polovicu debljine hipokampalnog zida. Uočili smo da se sa sazrijevanjem piramidnih neurona CA mijenjaju i značajke MZ. Tijekom kasnog fetalnog razdoblja ona postupno od medijalno prema lateralno, od CA3 prema CA1, gubi elemente peteroslojne MZ hipokampalnog primordija i poprima izgled slojeva odraslog mozga. MZ hipokampalne formacije kao i SP neokorteksa od srednjeg fetalnog razdoblja nadalje moguće je prikazati metodom MR zbog obilja ECM i svoje debljine. U ovoj disertaciji prvi put smo opisali transkripcijski faktor ZBTB20 kao prenatalni arhikortikalni marker hipokampusa čovjeka. On ima prolaznu prenatalnu ekspresiju u postmitotičkim piramidnim neuronima CA i zrnatim stanicama GD, te kalretinin pozitivnim interneuronima u hipokampusu. Na granici CA1 i subikuluma ekspresija ZBTB20 naglo nestaje. Transkripcijski faktor ZBTB20 predstavlja bitan element regulatornog molekularnog mehanizma razvoja troslojnog arhikorteksa i uspostavljanja granice prema prijelaznom korteksu i neokorteksu. Detalji tog molekularnog mehanizma u čovjeka još ostaju otvoreno pitanje.During development, the hippocampal formation of the human brain exhibits a different laminar organisation in comparison to the neocortex. MZ is the most developed foetal hippocampal zone and, from mid-foetal period onwards, accounts for half of the thickness of the hippocampal wall. We have noticed that MZ characteristics change with the maturation of CA pyramidal neurons. During later stages of foetal development, MZ gradually, from CA3 to CA1, loses elements of the five-layer MZ hippocampal primordium and takes on the layering of an adult brain. From mid-foetal period it is possible to demonstrate hippocampal MZ and the SP neocortex using the MRI due to the abundance of ECM and their thickness. In this dissertation the transcription factor ZBTB20 is described as a prenatal archicortical hippocampal marker in humans for the very first time. It exhibits a transient prenatal expression in postmitotic CA pyramidal neurons and GD granular cells. On the CA1-subiculum border, the ZBTB20 expression stops abruptly. The transcription factor ZBTB20 is an important element, not only in the regulatory molecular mechanism of the three-layer archicortex development, but also in establishing a border towards the transient cortex and the neocortex

Histological, MRI and transcriptome analysis of the reorganizational processes in the developing human hippocampus

Hipokampalna formacija u ljudskom mozgu pokazuje različitu laminarnu organizaciju tijekom razvitka u odnosu na lateralna kortikalna područja. Za razliku od neokortikalnih regija, subplate zona u hipokampalnoj formaciji je slabo razvijena, te rana urastajuća vlakna prema hipokampusu završavaju u istaknutoj marginalnoj zoni, uspostavljajući tamo sinapse s apikalnim dendritima glavnih hipokampalnih neurona. Naša studija opisala je složenu organizaciju peteroslojne MZ hipokampalnog primordija čovjeka u ranom fetalnom razdoblju. Duboki slojevi MZ pokazuju ekspresiju sinaptičkog markera sinaptofizina kao i markere postmitotičkih neurona već u 12. TNZ koji mogu biti postsinaptički elementi nadolazećih aferentnih vlakana. MZ je najrazvijenija fetalna zona hipokampusa te od srednjeg fetalnog razdoblja pa nadalje čini polovicu debljine hipokampalnog zida. Uočili smo da se sa sazrijevanjem piramidnih neurona CA mijenjaju i značajke MZ. Tijekom kasnog fetalnog razdoblja ona postupno od medijalno prema lateralno, od CA3 prema CA1, gubi elemente peteroslojne MZ hipokampalnog primordija i poprima izgled slojeva odraslog mozga. MZ hipokampalne formacije kao i SP neokorteksa od srednjeg fetalnog razdoblja nadalje moguće je prikazati metodom MR zbog obilja ECM i svoje debljine. U ovoj disertaciji prvi put smo opisali transkripcijski faktor ZBTB20 kao prenatalni arhikortikalni marker hipokampusa čovjeka. On ima prolaznu prenatalnu ekspresiju u postmitotičkim piramidnim neuronima CA i zrnatim stanicama GD, te kalretinin pozitivnim interneuronima u hipokampusu. Na granici CA1 i subikuluma ekspresija ZBTB20 naglo nestaje. Transkripcijski faktor ZBTB20 predstavlja bitan element regulatornog molekularnog mehanizma razvoja troslojnog arhikorteksa i uspostavljanja granice prema prijelaznom korteksu i neokorteksu. Detalji tog molekularnog mehanizma u čovjeka još ostaju otvoreno pitanje.During development, the hippocampal formation of the human brain exhibits a different laminar organisation in comparison to the neocortex. MZ is the most developed foetal hippocampal zone and, from mid-foetal period onwards, accounts for half of the thickness of the hippocampal wall. We have noticed that MZ characteristics change with the maturation of CA pyramidal neurons. During later stages of foetal development, MZ gradually, from CA3 to CA1, loses elements of the five-layer MZ hippocampal primordium and takes on the layering of an adult brain. From mid-foetal period it is possible to demonstrate hippocampal MZ and the SP neocortex using the MRI due to the abundance of ECM and their thickness. In this dissertation the transcription factor ZBTB20 is described as a prenatal archicortical hippocampal marker in humans for the very first time. It exhibits a transient prenatal expression in postmitotic CA pyramidal neurons and GD granular cells. On the CA1-subiculum border, the ZBTB20 expression stops abruptly. The transcription factor ZBTB20 is an important element, not only in the regulatory molecular mechanism of the three-layer archicortex development, but also in establishing a border towards the transient cortex and the neocortex

Histological, MRI and transcriptome analysis of the reorganizational processes in the developing human hippocampus

Hipokampalna formacija u ljudskom mozgu pokazuje različitu laminarnu organizaciju tijekom razvitka u odnosu na lateralna kortikalna područja. Za razliku od neokortikalnih regija, subplate zona u hipokampalnoj formaciji je slabo razvijena, te rana urastajuća vlakna prema hipokampusu završavaju u istaknutoj marginalnoj zoni, uspostavljajući tamo sinapse s apikalnim dendritima glavnih hipokampalnih neurona. Naša studija opisala je složenu organizaciju peteroslojne MZ hipokampalnog primordija čovjeka u ranom fetalnom razdoblju. Duboki slojevi MZ pokazuju ekspresiju sinaptičkog markera sinaptofizina kao i markere postmitotičkih neurona već u 12. TNZ koji mogu biti postsinaptički elementi nadolazećih aferentnih vlakana. MZ je najrazvijenija fetalna zona hipokampusa te od srednjeg fetalnog razdoblja pa nadalje čini polovicu debljine hipokampalnog zida. Uočili smo da se sa sazrijevanjem piramidnih neurona CA mijenjaju i značajke MZ. Tijekom kasnog fetalnog razdoblja ona postupno od medijalno prema lateralno, od CA3 prema CA1, gubi elemente peteroslojne MZ hipokampalnog primordija i poprima izgled slojeva odraslog mozga. MZ hipokampalne formacije kao i SP neokorteksa od srednjeg fetalnog razdoblja nadalje moguće je prikazati metodom MR zbog obilja ECM i svoje debljine. U ovoj disertaciji prvi put smo opisali transkripcijski faktor ZBTB20 kao prenatalni arhikortikalni marker hipokampusa čovjeka. On ima prolaznu prenatalnu ekspresiju u postmitotičkim piramidnim neuronima CA i zrnatim stanicama GD, te kalretinin pozitivnim interneuronima u hipokampusu. Na granici CA1 i subikuluma ekspresija ZBTB20 naglo nestaje. Transkripcijski faktor ZBTB20 predstavlja bitan element regulatornog molekularnog mehanizma razvoja troslojnog arhikorteksa i uspostavljanja granice prema prijelaznom korteksu i neokorteksu. Detalji tog molekularnog mehanizma u čovjeka još ostaju otvoreno pitanje.During development, the hippocampal formation of the human brain exhibits a different laminar organisation in comparison to the neocortex. MZ is the most developed foetal hippocampal zone and, from mid-foetal period onwards, accounts for half of the thickness of the hippocampal wall. We have noticed that MZ characteristics change with the maturation of CA pyramidal neurons. During later stages of foetal development, MZ gradually, from CA3 to CA1, loses elements of the five-layer MZ hippocampal primordium and takes on the layering of an adult brain. From mid-foetal period it is possible to demonstrate hippocampal MZ and the SP neocortex using the MRI due to the abundance of ECM and their thickness. In this dissertation the transcription factor ZBTB20 is described as a prenatal archicortical hippocampal marker in humans for the very first time. It exhibits a transient prenatal expression in postmitotic CA pyramidal neurons and GD granular cells. On the CA1-subiculum border, the ZBTB20 expression stops abruptly. The transcription factor ZBTB20 is an important element, not only in the regulatory molecular mechanism of the three-layer archicortex development, but also in establishing a border towards the transient cortex and the neocortex

The Stereological Analysis and Spatial Distribution of Neurons in the Human Subthalamic Nucleus

The subthalamic nucleus (STN) is a small, ovoid structure, and an important site of deep brain stimulation (DBS) for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Although the STN is a clinically important structure, there are many unresolved issues with regard to it. These issues are especially related to the anatomical subdivision, neuronal phenotype, neuronal composition, and spatial distribution. In this study, we have examined the expression pattern of 8 neuronal markers [nNOS, NeuN, parvalbumin (PV), calbindin (CB), calretinin (CR), FOXP2, NKX2.1, and PAX6] in the adult human STN. All of the examined markers, except CB, were present in the STN. To determine the neuronal density, we have performed stereological analysis on Nissl-stained and immunohistochemical slides of positive markers. The stereology data were also used to develop a three-dimensional map of the spatial distribution of neurons within the STN. The nNOS population exhibited the largest neuronal density. The estimated total number of nNOS STN neurons is 281,308 ± 38,967 (± 13.85%). The STN neuronal subpopulations can be divided into two groups: one with a neuronal density of approximately 3,300 neurons/mm3 and the other with a neuronal density of approximately 2,200 neurons/mm3. The largest density of STN neurons was observed along the ventromedial border of the STN and the density gradually decreased toward the dorsolateral border. In this study, we have demonstrated the presence of 7 neuronal markers in the STN, three of which were not previously described in the human STN. The human STN is a collection of diverse, intermixed neuronal subpopulations, and our data, as far as the cytoarchitectonics is concerned, did not support the tripartite STN subdivision

Prenatal development of the human entorhinal cortex

Little is known about the development of the human entorhinal cortex (EC), a major hub in a widespread network for learning and memory, spatial navigation, high-order processing of object information, multimodal integration, attention and awareness, emotion, motivation, and perception of time. We analyzed a series of 20 fetal and two adult human brains using Nissl stain, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) histochemistry, and immunocytochemistry for myelin basic protein (MBP), neuronal nuclei antigen (NeuN), a pan-axonal neurofilament marker, and synaptophysin, as well as postmortem 3T MRI. In comparison with other parts of the cerebral cortex, the cytoarchitectural differentiation of the EC begins remarkably early, in the 10th week of gestation (w.g.). The differentiation occurs in a superficial magnocellular layer in the deep part of the marginal zone, accompanied by cortical plate (CP) condensation and multilayering of the deep part of CP. These processes last until the 13-14th w.g. At 14 w.g., the superficial lamina dissecans (LD) is visible, which divides the CP into the lamina principalis externa (LPE) and interna (LPI). Simultaneously, the rostral LPE separates into vertical cell-dense islands, whereas in the LPI, the deep LD emerges as a clear acellular layer. In the 16th w.g., the LPE remodels into vertical cell-dense and cell-sparse zones with a caudorostral gradient. At 20 w.g., NeuN immunoreactivity is most pronounced in the islands of layer II cells, whereas migration and differentiation inside-out gradients are seen simultaneously in both the upper (LPE) and the lower (LPI) pyramidal layers. At this stage, the EC adopts for the first time an adult-like cytoarchitectural organization, the superficial LD becomes discernible by 3T MRI, MBP-expressing oligodendrocytes first appear in the fimbria and the perforant path (PP) penetrates the subiculum to reach its molecular layer and travels along through the Cornu Ammonis fields to reach the suprapyramidal blade of the dentate gyrus, whereas the entorhinal-dentate branch perforates the hippocampal sulcus about 2-3 weeks later. The first AChE reactivity appears as longitudinal stripes at 23 w.g. in layers I and II of the rostrolateral EC and then also as AChE-positive in-growing fibers in islands of superficial layer III and layer II neurons. At 40 w.g., myelination of the PP starts as patchy MBP-immunoreactive oligodendrocytes and their processes. Our results refute the possibility of an inside-out pattern of the EC development and support the key role of layer II prospective stellate cells in the EC lamination. As the early cytoarchitectural differentiation of the EC is paralleled by the neurochemical development, these developmental milestones in EC structure and connectivity have implications for understanding its normal function, including its puzzling modular organization and potential contribution to consciousness content (awareness), as well as for its insufficiently explored deficits in developmental, psychiatric, and degenerative brain disorders