Spatial variation of soil quality indicators as a function of land use and topography

This paper is part of a Special Issue entitled “University of Alberta Contributions to Soil Science: Past, Present, and Future”.Soil quality (SQ) indicators such as plant available water (PAW), soil organic carbon (SOC), and microbial biomass carbon (MBC) can reveal agroecological functions; however, their spatial variabilities across contrasting land uses need to be better understood. This study examined the spatial variation of these key SQ indicators as a function of two land-use systems and using topography covariates. We sampled a total of 116 point locations in a native grassland (NG) site and an irrigated cultivated (IC) site located near Brooks, Alberta. Compared with NG, cultivation altered soil pore-size distribution by sharply reducing macroporosity by 25%. However, conditions in the IC soil supported greater accrual of microbial growth (MBC of 601 vs. 812 nmol phospholipid fatty acids g−1 soil) probably due to more availability of water and nutrients. Focusing on the effects of topography on SQ indicators, terrain elevation (by light detection and ranging) and estimated depth-to-water were found to be key controllers of SQ at the two land-use systems. Also, there were gradual increases in both SOC and MBC where estimated water table was deeper, and higher SOC also associated with lower elevation. A comparison of ordinary kriging and cokriging (coK) geostatistical mapping indicated that the coK method performed better as demonstrated by improvements in the accuracies of spatial estimations of PAW, SOC concentration, and MBC. Thus, implementing coK using the aforementioned topography covariates enhances the capability for predictive mapping of SQ, which is particularly useful when spatial data for key SQ indicators are sparse and challenging to measure.Peer reviewe

Methods for testing short- and long-term phosphorus fertilizing efficiency of products with varying solubility

Phosphorus (P) recovery from nutrient-rich side streams (NRSS) and derived products is crucial to ensure sustainable food production in the future and to enhance the circular economy, but the agronomic efficiency of these products needs to be validated to reach these targets. In this study, we used a Hedley fractionation scheme and the diffusive gradient in thin film (DGT) method to determine P availability in 83 NRSS and derived products originating from Finland, Sweden, and Germany. Furthermore, two independent short- and long-term growth experiments with barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), respectively, were conducted to evaluate P availability in 15 selected NRSS. In addition to the DGT soil test, different fertilizer extractants, 2 % formic acid (FA), 2 % citric acid, and neutral ammonium citrate, were tested for predicting P availability in growth experiments. Livestock manures and slurries were found to contain a notable portion of labile P and were comparable to superphosphate (SP). Despite the low shares of labile P in struvite (7.2 %) and AshDec® (1.3 %), they exhibited P availability comparable to SP fertilizer, as indicated by DGT (99 % and 238 % of SP equivalence, respectively). This suggests that factors other than solubility influenced P availability in these side streams. The DGT method as a promising soil test predicted both short- and long-term P availability better than the selected conventional chemical extraction methods did. The 2 % FA extract exhibited the poorest performance, overestimating P availability in some nutrient sources while underestimating others in long-term. These findings enhance our understanding of P availability in potential raw materials for fertilizers, facilitating more effective P management strategies in the circular economy

Internal phosphorus loading in a small shallow Lake: Response after sediment removal

Mankind is taking advantage of numerous services by small shallow lakes such as drinking water supply, irrigation, and recreational function; however, many of these lakes suffer from eutrophication. Given the key role of phosphorus (P) in eutrophication process, one of the effective restoration methods especially for small shallow lakes is removal of sediments enriched with nutrients. In our study, we used interannual, seasonal, and spatial data to examine the changes in sediment P mobility after removal of sediments in 2016 from a 1-ha highly eutrophic lake. We measured the sediment redox potential, analyzed soluble reactive P (SRP) in the pore water and P fractional composition of the surface sediments, and calculated the P diffusive flux in three locations in two continuous years (2017 and 2018) after the excavation. Similar measurements were done before sediment removal at central site of the lake in 2015. Removing nutrient-rich sediment also removed 6400 kg of P, and thus the potential for release of P from sediments decreased on a long-term scale. However, a large pool of releasable P was rebuilt soon after the sediment removal due to high external P loading, resulting in extensive anoxia of sediment surface and associated internal P loading as high as 1450 mg m−2 summer−1. Moreover, the Fe-P and labile P fractions were the most important sources of P release, as evidenced by their considerable seasonal and interannual changes after the sediment removal. The sediment total Fe negatively correlated with sediment P diffusive flux, pore water SRP, and near-bottom water total P and SRP concentrations which indicated a strong linkage between sediment P dynamics and Fe after the restoration. Sediment removal could be a beneficial restoration approach, but the effects on lake water quality remain only short-term unless there is an adequate control on external loading to the lake.Peer reviewe

Recycling lake sediment to agriculture : Effects on plant growth, nutrient availability, and leaching

Sediment removal from eutrophicated shallow lakes may not only be an effective method for lake restoration but also provides the potential for recycling nutrients from sediments to crop production. However, finding a suitable strategy for sustainably reusing the sediment remains a challenge. Therefore, current study focused on the best practices in applying the sediment from a shallow eutrophicated lake to the soil in terms of grass yield, nutrient uptake, and nutrient leaching. During a nine-month lysimeter experiment, 100-cm high columns were filled with six combinations of soil, sediment, and biochar, with or without meat bone meal organic fertilizer. Aboveground biomass, root mass distribution in soil, nutrient concentration, phosphorus (P) uptake of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) along with easily soluble nutrients in the growing medium, and leached mineral nitrogen (N) and P levels were measured. Plant growth conditions were improved by sediment additions, as the yield and P uptake of ryegrass nearly doubled in treatments containing sediment compared to the control soil. While the sediment was richer in macro and micronutrients (e.g. P and N) compared to the soil, the leached N and P levels from both treatments were almost equivalent (N < 830 mg m−2 and P < 3 mg m−2). In addition, applying a 2-cm layer of biochar between the sediment and soil reduced P and N leaching by 50%. According to the results, applying a 75-cm thick layer of sediments on agricultural sandy loam soils surrounding the lake seems a promising practice for improving plant yield and soil nutrient status without increasing of P and N leaching from soil.Peer reviewe

Closing the phosphorus cycle by recycling lake sediments in agriculture

Phosphorus (P) is an essential plant macronutrient, originating mainly from non-renewable phosphate rocks. Rock phosphate (phosphorite) is one of the critical raw materials listed by the European Commission. Unsustainable P use affects food and water security and causes serious environmental problems such as the eutrophication (i.e., nutrient enrichment) of lakes. Given the essential role of P recycled from sediment to overlaying water in sustaining eutrophication, the removal of nutrient-rich sediments from lakes is one of the most effective restoration techniques, especially for small shallow lakes. Sediment removal removes P accumulated in lake sediments and offers the opportunity to close the P cycle by using the removed P in a sustainable manner. In the three studies of this thesis, I examined the potential of closing the agricultural P cycle by using lake sediments for crop production. The studies focused on the best practice for sediment recycling based on pot (I) and field experiments (II) along with investigating the changes to lake P dynamics after sediment removal (III). Excavating all the 7500 m3 of sediment from a 1-ha shallow eutrophic Lake Mustijärv (Viljandi, Estonia) was the starting point of this work. During the lake restoration, 6.4 Mg of P was removed, including 2.4 Mg of NaOH-extracted P (Fe−P), one of the major potentially bioavailable P forms. In the next step, various application methods were examined to use large quantities of lake sediments for grass production during a nine-month lysimeter experiment. The heavy metal and organic contaminant contents in the sediment were below the levels that would pose ecological or health risks according to the threshold values set by Ministry of the Environment, Finland. Using the excavated sediment with a low Fe:P mass ratio (6) resulted in a greater plant-availability of P and other nutrients compared with the sandy loam soil from the lake shore. The fertilization effect and the substantial increase in the growth and P uptake of ryegrass in the sediment-based treatments made the sediment application advisable for crop production. Of all the P fractions, the Fe-P fraction contributed most to plant P uptake. From an environmental impact perspective, even if a relatively thick layer of sediment was applied on top of the soil, it did not increase the risk of phosphate and mineral nitrogen (N) leaching. In addition, a biochar layer slightly reduced P and N leaching from the sediment. Furthermore, the environmental effects of various sediment application methods for grass production were studied in a four-year field experiment on the shore of the restored lake. The treatment effects on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, N and P leaching, aggregate stability, and soil biota were analyzed. The excavated sediment sustained grass biomass yield of 12 Mg ha−1 in the field, even though yield enhancement was less obvious compared with the lysimeter experiment. In addition to 75 g m−3 of easily soluble P, the sediment had also high contents of other soluble essential plant nutrients, including sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), boron (B), zinc (Zn), and a fair supply of copper (Cu). Also, the sediment continuously provided a moderate supply of N to the plants over the four-year field experiment, which was likely due to mineralization of the organic reserves of the sediment. Considering the environmental impacts, the sediment-based growing media were observed to have higher carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (579 vs. 400 mg CO2−C m−2 h−1) yet broadly similar nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions compared with the soil surrounding the lake. Also, applying a thick layer of excavated sediment increased the risk of phosphate and mineral N leaching. In addition, sediment treatments had different bacterial and fungal community compositions compared with soil. This could result in different mineralization pathways in soil and sediment-based treatments. During a two-year follow-up period, internal P loading formation in a recently restored lake was examined using sediment and lake water chemistry data. Soon after sediment removal, a high pool of releasable P was rebuilt in the lake due to exceptionally high external P loading. In addition, extensive anoxia of the surface sediments and in the water overlying the lake bottom was revealed. This resulted in high internal P loading, which sustained the eutrophication. Variations in the release rate of P from the newly formed sediments were explained by changes in sediment Fe−P and labile P fractions. Moreover, the gradual decrease in different P forms and organic matter from lake inflow towards outflow revealed the important role of sediment accumulation basins in lake restoration. Sediment from Lake Mustijärv was rich in organic matter and was a good source of several essential nutrients, including P, in plant-available form. I suggest that, instead of using a thick layer of sediments alone as a growing medium, sediment would be applied to soils based on crop nutrient requirements. Such an application, similar to the application of organic fertilizers, may reduce nutrient losses through leaching. With the aim of closing the agricultural P cycle, this case study can be upscaled to other shallow lakes with similar sediment properties.Fosfori (P) on kasveille välttämätön makroravinne, joka on peräisin pääasiassa kiviaineksen uusiutumattomista raakafosfaattivarannoista. Raakafosfaatti (fosforiitti) on yksi Euroopan komission luettelemista kriittisistä raaka-aineista. Kestämätön fosforin käyttö vaikuttaa ruoka- ja vesiturvaan ja aiheuttaa vakavia ympäristöongelmia, kuten järvien rehevöitymistä (eli ravinteiden rikastumista). Koska sedimentistä veteen liukenevalla fosforilla on keskeinen rooli rehevöitymisen ylläpitämisessä, ravinnepitoisten sedimenttien poistaminen on yksi tehokkaimmista ennallistamistekniikoista erityisesti pienissä ja matalissa järvissä. Sedimentin poisto poistaa kertyneen fosforin ja mahdollistaa fosforin kierron sulkemisen hyödyntämällä sitä kestävällä tavalla. Väitöskirjani kolmessa osatutkimuksessa tarkastelin maatalouden fosforin kierron sulkemisen mahdollisuuksia käyttämällä järvisedimenttejä kasvintuotantoon. Tutkimukset kohdistuivat sedimentin kierrätyksen parhaisiin käytäntöihin perustuen astia- (I) ja kenttäkokeisiin (II) sekä järviveden laadun muutosten tutkimiseen sedimentin poiston jälkeen (III). Tutkimuksen alussa yhden hehtaarin kokoisesta, matalasta ja rehevöityneestä Mustijärv-järvestä (Viljandi, Viro) poistettiin järven koko sedimentti, yhteensä 7500 m3. Sedimentin mukana järvestä poistettiin 6,4 Mg fosforia, josta vähintään 2,4 Mg oli potentiaalisesti biosaatavassa muodossa, mukaan lukien NaOH-uuttoisen fosforin (Fe−P) ja labiilin fosforin (Plab) fraktiot. Seuraavassa vaiheessa yhdeksän kuukautta kestäneessä lysimetrikokeessa tutkittiin menetelmiä suurten sedimenttimäärien käyttämiseksi nurmentuotannossa. Raskasmetallien ja orgaanisten vierasaineiden pitoisuudet sedimentissä alittivat ympäristöministeriön asettamat raja-arvot, joita suuremmat pitoisuudet aiheuttaisivat ekologisia tai terveydellisiä riskejä. Matalan Fe:P-suhteen (6) vuoksi fosforin ja muiden ravinteiden käyttökelpoisuus kasveille oli suurempi sedimentissä kuin järven rannan hietamaassa. Jo pelkkä lannoitusvaikutus olisi riittävä syy suositella sedimentin hyödyntämistä kasvintuotannossa. Raiheinän kasvu ja fosforin otto lisääntyi huomattavasti sedimenttipohjaisissa käsittelyissä. Fosforifraktioista Fe-P-fraktio myötävaikutti eniten kasvien fosforinottoon. Ympäristövaikutusten näkökulmasta oli myönteistä, että vaikka vaikka maan päälle levitettiin suhteellisen paksu sedimenttikerros, se ei lisännyt fosfaatin ja mineraalitypen huuhtoutumisen riskiä. Lisäksi sedimentin päälle lisätty biohiilikerros vähensi hieman fosforin ja typen huuhtoutumista sedimentistä. Sedimentin eri hyödyntämismenetelmien ympäristövaikutuksia nurmentuotannossa selvitettiin edelleen kunnostetun järven rannalle perustetussa nelivuotisessa kenttäkokeessa, jossa mitattiin käsittelyjen vaikutuksia kasvihuonekaasupäästöihin, fosforin ja typen huuhtoutumiseen, maa-aggregaattien kestävyyteen ja maaperän eliöstöön. Kentällä sedimenttilisäyksen saaneissa koejäsenissä nurmibiomassan tuotto oli 12 Mg ha−1, mutta sadon lisääntyminen ei ollut yhtä ilmeistä kuin lysimetrikokeessa. Helppoliukoisen fosforin (75 g m−3) lisäksi sedimentissä oli helppoliukoisena runsaasti myös muita välttämättömiä kasviravinteita, kuten rikkiä (S), kalsiumia (Ca), magnesiumia (Mg), booria (B) ja sinkkiä (Zn). Sedimentissä oli myös kohtalaisesti typpeä kasveille käyttökelpoisessa muodossa koko nelivuotisen kenttäkokeen ajan, mikä johtui todennäköisesti sedimentin orgaanisen aineksen mineralisoitumisesta. Ympäristövaikutusten tarkastelu osoitti, että kentällä sedimenttipohjaisten kasvualustojen hiilidioksidipäästöt (CO2) olivat suurempia kuin järveä ympäröivästä hietamaasta (579 vs. 400 mg CO2−C m−2 h−1), mutta typpioksiduulipäästöt (N2O) olivat samalla tasolla. Lisäksi paksu sedimenttikerros lisäsi fosfaatin ja mineraalitypen huuhtoutumisen riskiä. Sedimenttikäsittelyiden bakteeri- ja sieniyhteisöt poikkesivat hietamaan yhteisöistä, mikä saattaa johtaa eroihin ravinteiden mineralisaatiossa. Kunnostetun järven sisäistä P-kuormitusta tutkittiin seuraamalla sedimentin ja järven ravinnepitoisuuksia kahden vuoden ajan. Suuren ulkoisen fosforikuormituksen vuoksi järven liukenevan fosforin varastot palasivat ennalleen pian sedimentin poiston jälkeen. Havaittiin myös, että järven sedimentti ja sitä välittömästi peittänyt vesikerros olivat laajalti vähähappisia. Tämä johti korkeaan sisäiseen fosforikuormitukseen, joka ylläpiti rehevöitymistä. Fosforin vapautumisnopeuden vaihtelut äskettäin muodostuneista sedimenteistä selittyivät sedimentin Fe−P- ja Plab-fraktioiden muutoksilla. Lisäksi eri fosforimuotojen ja orgaanisen aineksen asteittainen väheneminen sedimenttien laskeutusaltaissa, kun mentiin järven sisäänvirtauksesta kohti ulosvirtausta, paljasti sedimentin kertymisaltaiden tärkeän roolin järvien kunnostuksessa. Mustijärv-järven sedimentissä oli runsaasti orgaanista ainesta ja useita kasveille välttämättömiä ravinteita, kuten fosforia, kasveille käyttökelpoisessa muodossa. Suosittelen, että kasvintuotannossa maahan lisättävät sedimenttimäärät valitaan viljelykasvien tarpeiden perusteella, kuten maanparannusaineilla, sen sijaan että paksua sedimenttikerrosta käytettäisiin yksinomaisena kasvualustana. Tämä voi vähentää huuhtoutumisesta johtuvaa ravinteiden hävikkiä. Rehevöityneitä matalia järviä, joilla on samanlaiset sedimenttiominaisuudet kuin tämän tutkimuksen järvellä, voidaan kunnostaa ja niiden sedimenttiä voidaan hyödyntää maatalouden fosforikierron sulkemiseksi tässä tutkimuksessa kuvatulla tavalla

Root adaptation of urban trees to a more precise irrigation system: Mature olive as a case study

Water scarcity encourages municipalities to use more precise irrigation systems in arid urban landscapes. However, major concerns are associated with the adaptation of mature trees to new irrigation systems after they have matured under traditional management. We investigated the adaptation of mature olive trees to a change in irrigation system from a traditional surface to an automatic drip irrigation system in a coarse-textured urban forest park. The growth indices of eight-year-old olive trees were monitored for the period of 2012–2014 under three irrigation systems: (1) automated drip irrigation (ADI) for trees that matured under traditional basin-surface irrigation (TSI), (2) TSI since plantation, and (3) traditional drip irrigation (TDI) irrigating the trees depending on water availability since the time of planting. We additionally determined the spatial pattern of root development by collecting 156 soil samples from each irrigation system with a 20 × 20-cm grid system (120 cm width × 80 cm depth) in the soil profile. Results showed no significant differences in terms of fruit productivity between TSI and recently established ADI systems. Automated drip irrigation resulted in the maximum root density with a uniform root distribution pattern, where roots expanded all over the soil profile. In TSI, however, the roots were distributed irregularly, with the highest density close to the irrigation basin. The wide spacing between drippers in the TDI system created large gaps between the wetted zones in the soil with a low water-holding capacity, leading to a discrete small root system. The present study highlights the positive response of mature olive trees to the replacement of the irrigation system in an urban forest park with limited available water and low soil quality. Our findings will help municipalities to properly preserve mature urban trees and the ecosystem services for their inhabitants.Non peer reviewe

Protective Effect of L-Carnitine on the Sperm Parameters of Adult Mice Treated with Ciprofloxacin

Background & objectives: The present study examined the gonadotoxic effects of ciprofloxacin antibiotics and protective effects of L-carnitine. Methods: In this study, 20 NMRI mice were divided into four groups: control, ciprofloxacin, L-carnitine, L-carnitine-ciprofloxacin (each group included 5 animals). The control group received normal saline, the treatment group 1 received 12.5 mg/kg ciprofloxacin, the treatment group 2 received 100 mg/kg L- carnitine and the treatment group 3 received 100 mg/kg L- carnitine and 12.5 mg / kg ciprofloxacin simultaneously. All animals were treated by intraperitoneal administration for 15 days. Testis and epididymis were collected to evaluate sperm parameters (sperm count, motility, morphology and viability). Results: In the ciprofloxacin group, a significant decrease in sperm count, sperm viability, sperm motility, progressive sperm motility and normal sperm as well as a significant increase in rotating sperm motility, sperm without movement, head and tail abnormalities were observed (p&le;0.05). A significant increase in sperm count, sperm survival, motility and progressive sperm motility, normal sperm and a significant decrease in rotating sperm motility, sperm without movement and head abnormalities in the L-carnitine-ciprofloxacin group were observed (p&le;0.05); however, the reduction in tail abnormalities of sperm was not significant. Conclusion: L-carnitine improves sperm parameters in the adult mice treated with ciprofloxacin

A Lifesaver in Times of Need : An analysis of the construction of need and the right to emergency social assistance by the administrative court of appeal

Det finns ingen särskild nödbiståndsparagraf i socialtjänstlagen (SFS 2001:453) [SoL] utan bedömningen av rätten till nödbistånd regleras i samma paragraf som ekonomiskt bistånd, nämligen SoL 4:1. Syftet med denna studie var att analysera på vilket sätt nöd och rätten till nödbistånd konstrueras av kammarrätten. Dessutom avsåg denna studie att undersöka hur rättssäkerheten för enskilda som söker nödbistånd påverkas genom konstruktionerna av nöd och rätten till nödbistånd. Socialkonstruktionism, rättssociologi samt formell rättssäkerhet och materiell rättssäkerhet är de teoretiska perspektiv och begrepp som användes när studiens empiri analyserades. Sammanlagt analyserades 42 rättsfall från kammarrätten med hjälp av kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Under analysprocessens första steg styrde inte studiens teoretiska utgångspunkter de kategorier som togs fram, utan detta gjordes efteråt. Med hjälp av innehållsanalys urskiljdes följande fyra kategorier: Kapital, Livssituation, Eget ansvar och tidsaspekt samt Byråkrati. De första två kategorierna utgör kammarrättens konstruktion av nöd, medan de andra två kategorierna representerar kammarrättens konstruktion av rätten till nödbistånd.  Studiens resultat visar bland annat på att kammarrätten konstruerar nöd utifrån den enskildes kapital, där även individens egna livssituation samt föreställningar i samhället kan påverka kammarrättens bedömning om man befinner sig i nöd eller inte. Kammarrättens konstruktion av rätten till nödbistånd fokuserade på den enskildes egna ansvar för sin privatekonomi. Dessutom påverkade antalet nödlägen samt om nödsituationen ansågs självförvållad eller inte huruvida den enskilde beviljades nödbistånd eller inte, kammarrätten förstärker därmed egenansvarsnormen. I denna konstruktion blev det även tydligt att den enskilde behöver bevisa sin nödsituation genom att bifoga relevanta underlag och dokument i sin ansökan. Att det inte finns ett enhetligt sätt att bedöma nöd kopplas till att SoL beskrivs och tolkas som en ramlag. Konstruktionerna påverkar negativt den formella och materiella rättssäkerheten, eftersom studiens resultat visar att kammarrättens beslut och bedömningar inte är förutsägbara eller överensstämmer med de verkliga förhållandena. Denna studie identifierar att avsaknaden av en nödbiståndsparagraf och tillräckligt med prejudicerande domar om nödbistånd gör det svårt för de enskilda och de professionella inom socialt arbete att bedöma när en nödsituation föreligger samt när den stödsökande har rätt till nödbistånd. Studien visar att dessa vägledningar möjligtvis skulle förbättra rättssäkerheten och förenkla ansökningsprocessen för individen, samt även för dem professionella som handlägger och bedömer nödbiståndsansökningar.

A Lifesaver in Times of Need : An analysis of the construction of need and the right to emergency social assistance by the administrative court of appeal

Det finns ingen särskild nödbiståndsparagraf i socialtjänstlagen (SFS 2001:453) [SoL] utan bedömningen av rätten till nödbistånd regleras i samma paragraf som ekonomiskt bistånd, nämligen SoL 4:1. Syftet med denna studie var att analysera på vilket sätt nöd och rätten till nödbistånd konstrueras av kammarrätten. Dessutom avsåg denna studie att undersöka hur rättssäkerheten för enskilda som söker nödbistånd påverkas genom konstruktionerna av nöd och rätten till nödbistånd. Socialkonstruktionism, rättssociologi samt formell rättssäkerhet och materiell rättssäkerhet är de teoretiska perspektiv och begrepp som användes när studiens empiri analyserades. Sammanlagt analyserades 42 rättsfall från kammarrätten med hjälp av kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Under analysprocessens första steg styrde inte studiens teoretiska utgångspunkter de kategorier som togs fram, utan detta gjordes efteråt. Med hjälp av innehållsanalys urskiljdes följande fyra kategorier: Kapital, Livssituation, Eget ansvar och tidsaspekt samt Byråkrati. De första två kategorierna utgör kammarrättens konstruktion av nöd, medan de andra två kategorierna representerar kammarrättens konstruktion av rätten till nödbistånd.  Studiens resultat visar bland annat på att kammarrätten konstruerar nöd utifrån den enskildes kapital, där även individens egna livssituation samt föreställningar i samhället kan påverka kammarrättens bedömning om man befinner sig i nöd eller inte. Kammarrättens konstruktion av rätten till nödbistånd fokuserade på den enskildes egna ansvar för sin privatekonomi. Dessutom påverkade antalet nödlägen samt om nödsituationen ansågs självförvållad eller inte huruvida den enskilde beviljades nödbistånd eller inte, kammarrätten förstärker därmed egenansvarsnormen. I denna konstruktion blev det även tydligt att den enskilde behöver bevisa sin nödsituation genom att bifoga relevanta underlag och dokument i sin ansökan. Att det inte finns ett enhetligt sätt att bedöma nöd kopplas till att SoL beskrivs och tolkas som en ramlag. Konstruktionerna påverkar negativt den formella och materiella rättssäkerheten, eftersom studiens resultat visar att kammarrättens beslut och bedömningar inte är förutsägbara eller överensstämmer med de verkliga förhållandena. Denna studie identifierar att avsaknaden av en nödbiståndsparagraf och tillräckligt med prejudicerande domar om nödbistånd gör det svårt för de enskilda och de professionella inom socialt arbete att bedöma när en nödsituation föreligger samt när den stödsökande har rätt till nödbistånd. Studien visar att dessa vägledningar möjligtvis skulle förbättra rättssäkerheten och förenkla ansökningsprocessen för individen, samt även för dem professionella som handlägger och bedömer nödbiståndsansökningar.