Sustainable Cotton Production through Skill Development among Farmers: Evidence from Khairpur District of Sindh, Pakistan

This study on farmers’ training in environment friendly production practices for cotton crop was conducted in the Khairpur district of Sindh province. Data used in this study comprises baseline and post IPM Farmer Field School (FFS) impact surveys conducted during 2001 and 2003 respectively. The programme impacts were estimated on gross margins and changes in farmers’ attitude towards environment and biodiversity. The effect of training on social recognition of farmers, their experimentations abilities, and decision making skills were also examined. Beside single difference comparisons of change in production practices between trained and non-trained farmers, the difference in difference (DD) method was also used for comparisons among FFS farmers, exposed farmers and un-exposed farmers from control villages. The stochastic production frontier model incorporating inefficiency effects is also estimated to analyze the impact of farmers’ training (through FFS) on productivity and efficiency at cotton farms in the study area. Results show better cotton yield and reduction in cost of pesticides and fertilizer inputs enabled FFS farmers to fetch significantly higher gross margins (US$391/ha) than non-FFS (US$ 151/ha) and Control farms (US$ 25/ha). The total application of pesticide chemicals was largely reduced (44%) on FFS farms. The cost of inefficiency at FFS farms was lower (23.71%) as compared to those on non-FFS farms (30.50%) which implies that FFS farmers were able to maintain higher level of technical efficiency. It is concluded that the FFS approach is not only cost efficient but also improves farm level technical efficiency. Information generated through Agro-ecosystem analysis on pest and predator dynamics helps farmers to understand pest-predator interaction to allow nature to work with lesser or most appropriate interventions. A well-planned technical backup support mechanism is recommended to be evolved through integrating research system into farmer-led experimentation. The Programme achievements show that FFS approach in Pakistan has furthered from only crop management to systems management and community development approach and should be supported further to enter into mass scale expansion state.Cotton Production; Skill Development; Production Frontier; Efficiency; Pakistan

Zero-tillage Technology and Farm Profits: A Case Study of Wheat Growers in the Rice Zone of Punjab

This study presents the results from a field survey of the wheat growers in the rice-wheat zone of Punjab. The late maturing basmati rice varieties and the post paddy-harvest conventional tillage practices to prepare seedbed for wheat sowing often result in delayed planting of the crop. The late sowing is a major factor responsible for low wheat yields obtained by the farmers of the area. Introduction of the new zero-tillage seed drill in the area during early 1980s made it possible to sow wheat in freshly harvested untilled paddy fields utilizing residual moister. Presently, more than eighty thousand hectares of wheat are sown with zero-tillage drill technology. The partial budget analysis showed that zero-tillage is more profitable than conventional wheat sowing methods of ‘wadwatter’ or ‘rauni’. The new technology saves tillage and irrigation costs, results in yield gains through a possible improvement in sowing time and enhanced fertilizer and water use efficiencies. The results showed that the zero-tillage adopters earn an extra income of 253 and 2278 rupees per acre of wheat over that earned from wheat sown with rauni and wadwattar methods respectively. The results of multiple regression analysis confirmed that the zero-tillage technology enhances water and fertilizer use efficiency. However, sufficient evidence was not present to prove any positive or adverse affect of the technology on the incidence of weeds in wheat crop. It is suggested that this aspect of zero-tillage technology be focused more in future research.wheat; Zero-tillage; technology; irrigated Punjab; rice-wheat zone; Pakistan

Globalizing the Trade Policy

Globalization has been the most captivating and engulfing subject of the decade of 1990s. The impact of this subject has been such that it has brought about the new economic era. Even the breakup of the Former Soviet Union is considered the casualty of globalization. The competitive advantage of nations have led to the emergence of forces of globalization and WTO is the ultimate outcome of the era and globalization. Brettenwood philosophy and dictates do not rule the world, the new economic order that rules is the World Trade Organization and the dictates of Trade Policy that has emerged as ultimate outcome carrying a clout never perceived before. The global economy is now shaped by Trade Policy, which is the new leverage for political and economic policy direction. We are infact in need of a new rudder to steer the course of trade as the world has turned into a Boarderless World. For the first time the concept of Tailored Trade Policy have been understood and the value of tailoring the policy to suit and serve the cause of a nation. It has therefore become important to manage such a policy efficiently and suited to the interest of nation. It is in this context the paper evaluates the evidence and evolves the reasoning to develop a market minded, trade policy. The question that the paper answers is “Is it necessary for us to understand trade policy of other countries? And does trade policy matter? The paper eventually answers and proves the Hypothesis to be correct and subscribes to the requirement of the Hypothesis of radical change. It believes in the maxim that “only the living nations live out the experience of change no matter how bold the change”. The literature review covered a wide range of topics that are current to globalization, competitive advantage of nations, market orientation, national trade strategies, various theories of trade, all inclusive trade, and the current environment of discontinuity. There was also a survey of selected countries to examine their policies and see the causes of their success or failure. This survey of trade policies of actively trading nations and their track record in view of macroeconomics and microeconomics policies is new ground breaking information in developing strategic policies. It also emphasizes the need to go radically and adopt a new kind of Ministry of Commerce – a market minded Ministry, and to select strategic industries to make them competitive. And above all to focus on developing Human Capital to man the Ministry. VThe paper then goes on to recommend under the highly competitive environment, the need to adopt a policy of Trade Ambassador, Trade Academy and a Trade Bank. The final analysis of the paper is to have a globalized trade policy that is sensitive to development in the global environment, a policy that is sensitive to its trading partners and their trade policies and developing highly competent and highly knowledgeable ambassadors or territory commanders to bring the economic benefits to the nation through trade

Adoption of Recommended Varieties: A Farm-level Analysis of Wheat Growers in Irrigated Punjab

This study uses farm level data to analyse the determinants of adoption of recommended wheat varieties in irrigated Punjab, Pakistan. A notable proportion of wheat acreage is sown to non-recommended wheat varieties in the province. These cultivars had either lost (overtime) or did not have resistance against yellow rust. Farm size, education, and size of wheat enterprise on the farm are the important determinants of adoption of recommended wheat varieties while tractor ownership and irrigation source play a positive but insignificant role in the adoption decisions. Age and tenure proved to be less of a constraint towards adoption of the recommended wheat varieties. The likelihood of the adoption of recommended wheat varieties varied among tehsils, with the highest probabilities of adoption in Melsi and Arifwala tehsils of cotton-wheat zones I and II respectively.

Adoption of Recommended Varieties: A Farm level Analysis of Wheat Growers in Irrigated Punjab

This study uses farm level data to analyse the determinants of adoption of recommended wheat varieties in irrigated Punjab, Pakistan. A notable proportion of wheat acreage is sown to non-recommended wheat varieties in the province. These cultivars had either lost (overtime) or did not have resistance against yellow rust. Farm size, education, and size of wheat enterprise on the farm are the important determinants of adoption of recommended wheat varieties while tractor ownership and irrigation source play a positive but insignificant role in the adoption decisions. Age and tenure proved to be less of a constraint towards adoption of the recommended wheat varieties. The likelihood of the adoption of recommended wheat varieties varied among tehsils, with the highest probabilities of adoption in Melsi and Arifwala tehsils of cotton-wheat zones I and II respectively.Adoption; wheat varieties; Punjab; Pakistan

Zero-tillage Technology and Farm Profits: A Case Study of Wheat Growers in the Rice Zone of Punjab

The rice-wheat cropping zone of Punjab is the main producer of high-valued and fine quality basmati rice in Pakistan. The rice produced in this area is famous for its grain length and aromatic characteristics. Being an important export item, rice contributes significantly to the national foreign exchange earnings. Wheat is the other major crop of the rice-wheat system and being the staple food is central to national agricultural policies. Rice is grown on a vast area in this zone during Kharif mostly followed by wheat in the Rabi season. Studies have shown that a large gap exists between the potential and yields actually realised by the wheat growers of the area [Byerlee, et al. (1984); Hobbs (1985) and Sheikh, et al. (2000)]. Farmers’ practices regarding land preparation for paddy, wheat planting time, and other conflicts endogenous to the rice-wheat based cropping system were identified as the major factors limiting wheat yield in the area. The flooded and puddled soils that are well suited for paddy production as compared to well-drained conditions required for wheat is such an example of the system conflicts. The farmers in the rice-wheat zone of the Punjab predominantly grow basmati varieties, which are late maturing as compared to coarse varieties of rice. Therefore, paddy harvest is generally delayed at most of the farms in this zone. The late paddy harvest coupled with poor soil structure and loose plant residues create problems for preparation of a good seedbed and planting of wheat often gets late [Byerlee, et al. (1984)]. The farmers also had to resort to the broadcast method for wheat sowing which results in poor and patchy plant stands.

Economic Evaluation of Pesticide Use Externalities in the Cotton Zones of Punjab, Pakistan

The crop protection strategy in Pakistan is almost entirely based on pesticide use whereas development of integrated pest management (IPM) based technologies is in its initial phases of scrutiny as well as implementation. The inefficient use of chemicals has resulted in environmental pollution and sub-optimal returns to the society on the costly investments. This study estimates the social cost of pesticide use and suggests appropriate guidelines for regulating the safe use of pesticides. An overall economic evaluation of the externalities for the current pesticide use levels shows that external costs are quite higher than the currently paid price at the farm gate level. The environmental degradation and public health costs inflicted on the society due to the inefficient chemical use on cotton crop amounts to twelve thousand million rupees. The reduced reliance on crop protection through chemical methods seems inevitable for a sustainable and healthy crop production.economic evaluation; externalities; pesticide use; social cost; crop protection; Punjab; Pakistan

Examining Factors of Entrepreneurial Success: Culture, Gender, Education, Family, Self-Perception

Objective: To examine the potential and contribution of culture, gender, education, family background and self-perception as factors of success in entrepreneurial ventures in Punjab the largest (64%) population province of Pakistan. In the context of developing countries economic growth is attributed to small enterprises as they generate employment.  Mortality rate of small enterprises is exceedingly high; and a study by Khawaja (2006) on Pakistan SME has reported that only 19% start-ups survived before they reach the 5th year. Prior Work: However in another study by Vesper (1990), in non-Pakistani environment found that only 10% of ventures survive after three years of existence. Therefore it is important to study success as perceived by entrepreneurs and various contributing influences. About the definition of entrepreneurial success there is no consensus among researchers. Stefanovic et al 2010 enumerated previous experience, hard work, access to capital, personal capabilities, and leadership skills as factors affecting success experience and knowledge. Focus on role of education is not meant to deny the importance of other factors that contribute to entrepreneurial success, such as, the nature of the entrepreneur; his/her character traits.    McClelland (1961) had attributed achievement motivation as an entrepreneurial success factor. Cox and Jennings (1995) had identified innovativeness in decision making.  Hodgets and Kuratko (1992) have identified opportunity recognition as an important characteristic of entrepreneurs; Dafna (2008) has focused on leadership qualities as factors affecting success. Approach: However this study is an attempt to understand the role of selected influences that have been mentioned as having some contribution toward success of entrepreneurs; and these were:  1) education, 2) gender, 3) culture, 4) family, and 5) subjectively self - perceived reason of success. Therefore this study is more exploratory than theoretical. Two research questions were explored in this study. Result: Male and female entrepreneurs differed significantly with respect to years of formal education completed as well as with respect to the medium of instructions during formal schooling.   Male and female entrepreneurs differed about their reasons for success, especially about God-gifted qualities and hard work being main reasons for success. Successful entrepreneurs were found more likely to have taken college level SME/ entrepreneurship courses.  Other successful entrepreneurs were found educated informally and gained knowledge through own reading as well.   Other successful entrepreneurs reported that their family background of being in business, their father being in business, and maternal uncle being in business were the likely influences of family and friends. Less successful entrepreneurs were found blaming government failure in providing support to entrepreneurial activity. The successful did not blame the government. Successful entrepreneurs were found likely to be college educated Punjabis. Implication: the Punjabi factor is crucial in this study as Pakistan has a population of 180 million and the Punjabi community comprises of nearly 64% of the population. A knowledge into entrepreneurial success and motivation would help in policymaking oriented toward entrepreneurial development leading to economic development. The other implication would be less reliance to prepare job seekers who are professionals – hence working towards a paradigm shift in education policy. Value: The paper is one of the first to focus on detailed research related activity on the subject of entrepreneurial success factors. Therefore adds to mote comprehensive understanding of creating an Enterprising Entrepreneurship Ecosystem. Keywords: Entrepreneurial Success factors; education, gender, family, self-perception, cultur