Biodiversity offsets can be a valuable tool in achieving sustainable development: Developing a holistic model for biodiversity offsets that incorporates environmental, social and economic aspects of sustainable development

The interpretation and use of biodiversity offsets in planning and development is a contentious issue because they rarely encompass each of the environmental, social and economic aspects of sustainable development. While currently agreed best practice for biodiversity offsets includes consideration of scope, scale, location, timing and duration, and monitoring, current literature on these components does not consider all aspects of sustainable development. Furthermore, much of the current agreed best practice focusses on the design of biodiversity offsets, without consideration of ongoing management or end-of-life. This manuscript reviews current best practice for biodiversity offsets, giving consideration to the environmental, social and economic aspects of sustainable development. In particular, we report that consideration of cost and risk is key and the use of planning frameworks, bonds and advanced offsets could mitigate these risks and allow for long-term success. Following this approach, a holistic model for design, implementation and ongoing management of direct biodiversity offsets that balances all aspects of sustainable development is presented

Freshwater cyanoprokaryota blooms in the Swan Coastal Plain wetlands: ecology, taxonomy and toxicology

Relatively little published information on cyanoprokaryote (blue-green algal) blooms in the freshwater wetlands in Western Australia is available. There has been little research on the urban lakes and rivers, examining the relationship between environmental conditions and toxin-producing blooms. In this project the ecology, morphology and toxicity of cyanoprokaryota blooms in 27 metropolitan lakes and sumplands, as well as three major rivers, from 2000 to 2003, on the Swan Coastal Plain (SCP) in the southwest of Western Australia were investigated.A total of 24 species were identified and described, of which nine species had not been previously documented in the area. This included the potentially toxic species Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, Aphanizomenon ovalisporum and Anabaena bergii var. limnetica. An illustrated guide to the common bloom-forming species was generated using conventional taxonomic criteria.Microcystis flos-aquae and Microcystis aeruginosa were the dominant bloom-forming cyanoprokaryotes, widespread in their distribution. Anabaena circinalis, A. bergii var. limnetica and Anabaenopsis elenkinii were the common filamentous species. Anabaena circinalis was common to certain freshwater sites, while A. bergii var. limnetica and A. elenkinii occurred in salinity ranging from fresh (< 1ppt) to hyposaline (3-10 ppt). Sites with similar species assemblages were identified using two-way indicator species analysis and clustering analysis. From this, a distinct distribution pattern emerged, which was defined by the main genera observed in the lakes – Microcystis, Anabaena, Aphanizomenon and Anabaenopsis.The spatial and temporal distribution of the common bloom-forming cyanoprokaryote species was examined in conjunction with spring-summer physico-chemical data using principal component analysis. It was found that pH, water temperature and electrical conductivity/salinity accounted for variations among the lakes, with electrical conductivity the variable explaining the greatest variation. Lakes located on the coast, or further inland at the base of the Darling Scarp, were more hyposaline to saline, and the remaining lakes were fresh. Although the SCP lakes form consanguineous groups based on geochemistry and hydrology, no similarities among them were found in terms of water quality.The relationship between nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) concentrations (total and dissolved inorganic) and cyanoprokaryote community structure (N-fixing versus non-N-fixing species) was investigated in five selected lakes; Yangebup Lake, Bibra Lake, Blue Gum Lake, Tomato Lake and Emu Lake. The lakes ranged from mesotrophic to eutrophic and supported spring-summer blooms containing multiple species. Overall an inverse relationship between cyanoprokaryote abundance and total ambient nutrient concentrations at the time of the blooms was evident. No transition in dominance in the community was observed in Yangebup Lake, Emu Lake and Bibra Lake, as they were dominated by non-heterocytic species (M. aeruginosa and M. flos-aquae) throughout spring and summer. For Yangebup Lake and Bibra Lake, the abundance of non-heterocytic species decreased concomitantly with decreasing dissolved inorganic N. In contrast, heterocytic species (A. circinalis) dominated the spring community in Tomato Lake, and summer community in Blue Gum Lake, when N and P concentrations were at their highest.The presence of microcystins in Microcystis dominated blooms was examined using high performance chromatography. A total of 32 natural bloom samples, representing 13 lakes, were analysed for microcystin variants; -LR, -RR and -YR. Twenty-eight samples proved to be toxic with the highest total microcystin concentration from 1645 to 8428.6 µg L[superscript]-1, the lowest concentrations were less than 10 µg L[superscript]-1 with some below the detection limit. Microcystis aeruginosa and M. flos-aquae were associated with these microcystin-containing blooms, although M. flos-aquae appear to be less toxic. The presence of Nodularia spumigena in the Lake Yangebup was associated with high concentrations of nodularin (1664 µg L[superscript]-1).Employing enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for microcystins and the brine shrimp (Artemia) bioassays allowed a greater number of lake samples to be analysed and provided a rapid assessment of toxicity. The three methods for cyanotoxin detection verified Yangebup Lake, Herdsman Lake, Hyde Park, Jackadder Lake and Emu Lake as highly toxic sites. Low toxicity was demonstrated in samples from Lake Goollelal, Lake Joondalup, Lake Claremont, Blue Gum Lake and North Lake. These results provided the first evidence of cyanotoxin producing blooms in urban lakes of the SCP.A comparative study on cyanoprokaryota blooms in Swan River estuary, upper Canning River and upper Serpentine River found that these sites, although hyposaline to saline, contained species that were common in the freshwater lakes. Sampling the river systems showed M. aeruginosa, M. flos-aquae, A. circinalis, A. elenkinii and Planktothrix planctonica to be cosmopolitan in distribution, present in SCP wetlands of varied salinity. Similarities between the upper Canning River and lakes in environmental conditions and species assemblage were demonstrated using multivariate analyses.Toxin analysis of bloom samples from the Swan River and upper Canning River revealed microcystin concentrations were less than that of the surrounding lakes (1.05-124.16 µg L[superscript]-1). Similarly, nodularin concentrations were higher in Yangebup Lake than the upper Serpentine River. However, the dominance of Anabaena in Canning River samples, and the highly toxic result from the Artemia bioassay suggests microcystin is not the predominant cyanotoxin in this wetland.This study has produced an overview of the distribution and morphology of cyanotoxin-producing cyanoprokaryotes in the SCP wetlands. The data presented provide the basis for further cyanoprokaryote research in Western Australia, in particular the molecular characterisation of bloom-forming toxic species

Microcystins associated with Microcystis dominated blooms in the Southwest wetlands, Western Australia

Potentially toxic cyanobacterial blooms are becoming common in the freshwater wetlands on the Swan Coastal Plain, Western Australia. During summer the dominant bloom-causing species belong to the genera Microcystis and Anabaena and to a lesser extent Aphanizomenon and Nodularia. Although toxic cyanobacteria have been recorded in the Swan-Canning and Peel-Harvey estuaries in Western Australia, very little is known about the blooms in the surrounding freshwater lakes. In this study, a total of 32 natural bloom samples representing 13 lakes were analyzed by HPLC for microcystin (MC)-LR, -RR, and -YR. Twenty-eight samples proved to be toxic. The highest total microcystin concentration ranged from 1645 to 8428.6 μg L-1, and the lowest concentrations were less than 10 μg L-1 with some below the detection limit (\u3c 0.05 μg L-1). MC-LR (100%) was the predominant microcystin, followed by MC-YR (71.4%) and MC-RR (60.7%). The presence of a Nodularia spumigena bloom in the freshwater Lake Yangebup was associated with the detection of nodularins (1664 μg L-1). This is the first study to demonstrate the presence of microcystins and nodularins in urban lakes on the Swan Coastal Plain, Western Australia

Apples for oranges: Disparities in offset legislation and policy among jurisdictions and its implications for environmental protection and sustainable development in Australia

As a signatory to Agenda 21, the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (including the Sustainable Development Goals) and the Convention on Biological Diversity, Australia has an international obligation to ensure sustainable development. Biodiversity offsets are one tool used by Australian regulators to allow development to continue, whilst ensuring international obligations for sustainable development are met. In this study, legislation, policy and published guidelines for the Australian Commonwealth, states and territories were analysed to determine if the application of biodiversity offsets was consistent with the principles of sustainable development (environmentally, socially, economically) and if the allowance of biodiversity offsets in different jurisdictions created gaps in biodiversity and environmental protection across Australia. Regulation of biodiversity offsets was found to be inconsistent between the Commonwealth and the states and territories, with most jurisdictions having less than 50% similarity. This inconsistency in offset policy and legislation between jurisdictions could lead to loss of biodiversity. Additionally, jurisdictions did not adequately consider the social and economic aspects of sustainability in relation to biodiversity offsets, meaning that, through the allowance of biodiversity offsets, Australia may not be meeting their international obligations related to sustainable development. Further legislative development for biodiversity offsets is required in Australia to improve environmental protection and to adequately consider all aspects of sustainability. The Council of Australian Governments is a mechanism that could be used to ensure all jurisdictions consider the aspects of sustainability consistently in relation to biodiversity offsets

as a dedicated biodiversity offsets policy improved the environmental and social compensation outcomes of development in Australia?

Biodiversity offsets are used worldwide to provide environmental compensation for the impacts of development and to meet the goals of sustainable development. Australia has embraced the use of ofsets and its ofset methodologies have been used as models by other jurisdictions. However, the maturity of ofset requirements in Australia is unknown. To understand this, development referrals submitted under the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Commonwealth) between October 2011 and September 2017 were reviewed to determine if ofset requirements in Australia were improving in complexity, transparency and/or environmental outcomes (termed maturity) over time. Despite the implementation of dedicated policy in Australia in 2012, our analysis showed that offset requirements were not on a trajectory towards improvement (maturity) over the 6-year period examined. There was no evidence to suggest the type of offsets required and compensation for impacts to specific species and habitats increased in complexity over time. The level of detail included for offset requirements, mandatory commencement dates and requirements for ecological outcomes similarly did not increase over time. Consequently, dedicated legislation for ofsets is recommended to remedy these omissions and enable efective functionality for biodiversity ofsets through the protection of the environment and conservation of biodiversity, ecosystem function and ecosystem services

Interesting biological activities from plants traditionally used by native Australians

Four plants routinely used for medicinal purposes by Native Australians were screened for various biological activities. Methanol extracts of Eremophila maculata, Acacia auriculoformis and Acacia bivenosa exhibited antibiotic effects, while Eremophila alternifolia yielded an extract that induced significant changes to the heart activity of spontaneously hypertensive rats. We report on these biological activities