Retention and Efficacy of Citizen Scientist Volunteers of the Texas Quail Index

The Texas Quail Index (TQI) was a 5-year, science-based project that utilized citizen scientists to collect data in the field, including 5 indices of bobwhite abundance in the spring, and 3 indices of bobwhite abundance in the fall. Over the course of the study, 84% of all volunteers dropped out of the program and \u3c8% of all data sets were complete. Accordingly, we surveyed the volunteers by mail to determine the rate and cause of participation decline and to identify characteristics of a reliable volunteer. Results indicated that annual volunteer participation rate declined more rapidly as time and labor requirements increased. Similarly, 74.3% of survey respondents who dropped out of the study reported leaving because the project required too much time and work. Motives may have contributed to the volunteer attrition as 72% of volunteers joined the program to learn more about quail management; however 71% of those that left the program reported not gaining knowledge in that area. We recommend that project designs, for citizen-science projects, should incorporate the motives of volunteers and recruit those whose motives best align with project goals. We also recommend that citizen-science coordinators keep volunteer tasks short and within the interest of the volunteer, to increase retention. Finally, we recommend stipends for volunteers on large-scale, laborious projects

Relationships between Meteorological and other Variables and Bobwhite Spring Call Counts

Accurate assessment of quail population trends is critical to the success of future conservation efforts. Financial considerations and time constraints often limit population trend estimates to indices, the most common of which are spring call counts and autumn covey counts. While all indices have limitations and caveats, spring call count data specifically possess variability that makes them ill-suited for detecting fine-scale trends. However, because spring call counts record calling males and are relatively easy to conduct, they are assumed to represent an index of breeding potential and produce the most data per unit cost. Here, we examine their variability, comparing the number of male northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus; hereafter, bobwhite) calling and weather measurements recorded during \u3e4,000 spring call counts conducted May–July 2014–2017. The number of male bobwhites recorded per call count decreased \u3e2 hours after sunrise, as ambient temperatures increased, but increased with relative humidity. An increase in ambient noise was associated with recording fewer male bobwhites. There was no correlation with either wind speed/hour for 3 of 4 years, or with the Palmer Drought Severity Index. Comparing these results with other spring call counts in the literature highlights inconsistency in spring call count timing, and discrepancies between call count protocols and weather conditions that affect detection probability. We suggest incorporating these results into future call counts to more accurately assess bobwhite population trends

What’s A Quail Worth? A Longitudinal Assessment of Quail Hunter Demographics, Attitudes, and Spending Habits In Texas

Funds generated and spent on the pursuit of quail (Colinus virginianus, Callipepla squamata) hunting in Texas are sizable. We surveyed a population of quail hunters in Texas in 2000 and 2011 to assess hunter demographics and spending habits. The population of hunters for the 2000 survey consisted of members of Quail Unlimited who lived in Texas while the 2011 population consisted of the former group’s successor in Texas—Quail Coalition. The initial (2000) survey was a mail questionnaire while the 2011 survey instrument was delivered electronically. We achieved response rates of 47% in 2000 but only 9% in 2011. The number of resident quail hunters in Texas decreased 72% from 1981 to 2010. Quail hunters in Texas can be characterized as white males (97%) and affluent (65% reported annual household incomes above $125,000 in 2010). Survey respondents documented an average expenditure of$8,606 in pursuit of quail during an average of 8.8 days of hunting during the 2010–2011 season. This resulted in a cost of $254 per quail bagged when combined with harvest estimates provided by respondents; an estimated increase of 23% over the last 10 years

The Texas Quail Index: Evaluating Predictors of Northern Bobwhite Productivity and Abundance Using Citizen Science

Annual abundance of northern bobwhites (Colinus virginianus) fluctuates drastically in semi-arid environments (e.g., Texas), which complicates the ability of wildlife biologists and quail managers to predict annual bobwhite productivity and relative abundance for the ensuing hunting season. The Texas Quail Index (TQI) was a 5-year citizen science project that evaluated several indices as predictors of bobwhite productivity and abundance during the subsequent fall. Indices included spring cock-call counts, forb species richness, simulated-nest fate, potential nest-site density, scent station visitation rates, roadside counts, fall covey call counts, and harvest data. Spring cock-call counts explained only 41% of the variation in fall bobwhite abundance across all study sites in years 1–4; yet explained 89% of the variation in year 5. The percentage of juveniles in the fall population (an index of bobwhite productivity) was significantly lower in year 5. All study sites experienced drought conditions throughout year 5 based on the Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI). Thus, drought conditions in semi-arid environments result in reduced productivity compared to non-drought years. Our results suggest low recruitment during drought years makes fall bobwhite abundance more predictable than during non-drought years. Wildlife biologists and quail managers should have a better ability to predict bobwhite productivity and fall abundance in drought years by recording spring cock-call counts

Analysis of Predator Avoidance Behavior in California Valley Quail

Quail populations have been in decline across the United States, primarily due to habitat loss and climate. For remedy, landowners and game managers have attempted to restore populations by releasing captive-reared quail. These releases were largely unsuccessful, presumably due to high predation losses. Recently, there has been an increased interest in quail translocations, which tend to have lower mortality rates than captive-reared bird releases. Translocations are expensive and unpredictable, and require many person-hours; releasing captive-reared quail would be more efficient if the practice were successful. We compared predator avoidance behavior between captive-reared and wild-translocated California quail (Callipepla californica) in an aviary using simulated predator attacks (raptorial and mammalian). We recorded predator detection time, antipredator response time, and antipredator response type. Antipredator response type (run, flush, or freeze) frequencies were different, where captive-reared quail ran more frequently than wild-translocated quail when encountering a simulated predator. Predator detection time between captive-reared and wild-translocated quail was not different. However, antipredator response time was quicker for captive-reared quail than wild-translocated quail when subjected to simulated raptorial and mammalian attacks. The differences in antipredator response time and response type may be due to the lack of predator interaction experience of captive-reared birds and offer insight into observed differences in postrelease mortality between captive-reared and wild-trapped quail

Connecting Land Ethics and Entrepreneurship Through Experiential Learning in Bobwhite Centric Outdoor Education Program

The majority of today’s youth have the ability to utilize consumer technology on a regular basis. This access has exacerbated the disconnect between adolescents and the natural environment by reducing the amount of time spent outdoors. To compound this disconnect, the continued use of traditional classroom settings along with the ‘‘sit-and-get’’ style of facilitation, widens the gap between inert knowledge and applied knowledge. The transformation from theory to practice witnessed in outdoor science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) education has been shown to foster the assimilation and retention of STEM concepts. Therefore, educational institutions have begun to cultivate the implementation of experiential learning programs in order to provide the appropriate setting for students to establish relationships between theory and application. This study investigated the relationship between experiential learning and content information retention in a bobwhite centric outdoor education program in which participants were given the task of creating a habitat management plan for a tract of land by utilizing entrepreneurship skills acquired over the course of camp. The study participants consisted of north Texas youth and program facilitators. Pre- and post-assessments were administered on the first and last day of the program. The data indicate an increase in content information retention among participants in experiential settings. The results are consistent with similar studies that have analyzed experiential learning methodologies and their impact on data retention. We recommend that the experiential approach be further applied and tested in youth outdoor education programs

Translocating Wild California Valley Quail to Texas: An Evaluation of Survival, Dispersal, Tracking Efficacy, and Roost Preference

Quail translocations are becoming increasingly popular in regions of suitable habitat where local quail populations have declined. In northeastern Texas, USA, northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) populations have drastically declined for over a century and have reached undetectable levels in many areas. As a result, the number of quail hunters and quail conservation funding have also declined. California valley quail (Callipepla californica; hereafter, valley quail) have increased across their range and have been translocated to many states and countries. Thus, the goal of this study was to determine whether translocating wild valley quail to Texas was feasible, and evaluate their survival, dispersal, roost location preference, and potential predator impacts. We translocated 748 wild valley quail from Idaho, USA to northeastern Texas in 2019 and 2020. We collected quail location data from very high frequency (VHF) and digital transmitters. Motion-triggered cameras, scent stations, simulated nests, and raptor transects were used to record predator presence and potential predator impacts. Survival of birds with tracking devices was 63% (VHF) in 2019, and 38.8% (VHF) and 92.5% (digital tag) in 2020. Survival was greater for quail with digital transmitters. Median dispersal distance was 633.5 m in 2019 and 246.6 m in 2020 for valley quail with VHF transmitters, and 310.4 m for quail with digital transmitters. Minimum convex polygon area medians were 4.3 ha in 2019 and 3.1 ha in 2020 for quail with VHF transmitters, and 16.1 ha in 2020 for quail with digital transmitters. Roost sites were primarily in young stands of oak trees. Median simulated nest survival was 2 days (minimum [min] = 1, interquartile range [IQR] = 2–5.4, maximum [max] = 23) in 2019, and 7.5 days (min = 2, IQR = 4.5–15.2, max = 23) in 2020. The most frequent mammalian predators observed were raccoons (Procyon lotor), feral hogs (Sus scrofa), and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) were the most frequent aerial predator. We completed the first documented translocation of wild California valley quail to Texas, demonstrating it is feasible. Future translocation may benefit from translocating more birds over a longer period of time, with more consistent methodology. The establishment of a sustainable population may require ≥7 years of translocation at a rate of 500 birds per year with \u3e2,000 ha of suitable habitat

Climate Impacts on North American Quail

North America’s quail population trends are often linked to regional climate. Extreme climate events such as severe drought, hard freezes, or excessive winter precipitation can reduce quail populations by as much as 84%. Above-average spring and summer temperatures coincident with drought can reduce the laying season for quail by ≤60 days. Exposure of quail eggs to high temperatures during preincubation can initiate and alter embryonic development. Here, we review the impacts of extreme climate events and a changing climate on the survival, reproduction, and population trends of 6 North American quail species: California quail (Callipepla californica), Gambel’s quail (Callipepla gambelii), Montezuma quail (Cyrtonix montezumae), mountain quail (Oreortyx pictus), northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), and scaled quail (Callipepla squamata). Climate change scenarios are especially troubling when considered in conjunction with the heat stress hypothesis, which suggests that reproduction is reduced during heat and drought events by elevated corticosterone levels due to heat stress. Global climate change is predicted to increase the west-to-east precipitation gradient across North America. While eastern North America will see more frequent heavy precipitation events, western North America will experience more frequent and severe spring heat waves, droughts, and wildfires. These will further imperil western quail populations in the near term by decreasing the frequency of successful reproductive events. Over the long term, we expect both an elevational increase and southwest-to-northeast shift in species ranges, and concordant extirpation of local populations. Of North American quail species, California quail may see its range contract the most, approximately 50% under a 3° C global temperature increase scenario. Conversely, milder winters may increase the area over which climate is favorable to bobwhites by approximately 25%. However, these gains will largely be contiguous with regions where bobwhite populations are rapidly declining, or have been extirpated, due to intensive agriculture and other land use changes. Extirpation of local populations may not be reversible, as there are few examples of successfully reestablished populations. There is a critical need for a national recovery plan that incorporates the impacts of future climate change on quail populations. We recommend that incorporating quail and other grassland birds into agricultural enterprises become standard practice. Long-term solutions will require increasing habitat quantity and connectivity. We also recommend research to further test and expand upon the heat stress hypothesis, and we recommend land management practices to mitigate the negative consequences of climate change

Stress and Predation Impacts on North American Quail Translocations

Translocations have been used in attempts to bolster or restore native quail populations for \u3e150 years, often with little success. However, with some northeastern United States quail populations undetectable or extirpated, and others across the United States on the extreme decline, translocation as a tool for quail population restoration is becoming increasingly popular. Two factors contributing to translocation failure are physiological stress and predation. Chronic stress associated with translocations can result in weight loss, reduced immune system function, suppressed reproduction, and an altered fight-or-flight response. These stress-induced responses increase vulnerability to predation, the primary cause of quail mortality. Here, we review the relationship between quail translocations, stress, and predation, and recommend future research and best practices to mitigate the impacts of stress and predation on translocated quail. To improve future translocation outcomes, more research is needed on stress mitigation throughout the translocation process (capture, handling, transport, and release). While capture and handling are unavoidably stressful, there is greater potential to reduce stress levels during holding and transport. Recent validation of fecal corticosterone metabolites as a non-invasive method to quantify stress in quail offers a useful tool for testing stress reduction protocols. Preliminary experimental results regarding nutritional supplements and stress levels are inconclusive, but enrichment during temporary holding and access to travel rations may help improve survival in long-distance (\u3e800 km) translocations. We also recommend predator control at release sites, particularly for raccoons (Procyon lotor) and other mesomammals

Translocation as a Population Restoration Technique for Northern Bobwhites: A Review and Synthesis

Northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) abundance has declined precipitously for decades across much of the species range, to the point of widespread local, regional, and statewide extirpation. Because of successful translocations of other gallinaceous birds, bobwhite enthusiasts increasingly call for use of the approach. Consequently, the National Bobwhite Technical Committee (NBTC), on behalf of state agencies, requested a review and recommendation by the NBTC Science Subcommittee. Thus, our paper is co-authored by invited experts and includes reviews of peer-reviewed publications, manuscripts in these proceedings, state agency reports, experience by co-authors, and a survey of perspectives on translocations by state wildlife agency members of the NBTC. We discuss the state of science on key aspects of bobwhite conservation, offer best management practices (BMPs) for using translocation as a potential bobwhite restoration technique, and suggest ways to reduce uncertainty about implementation. We note that although conservationists operate on a relatively solid foundation of improving bobwhite abundance via increased quantity, connectivity, and quality of habitat, population restoration success to- date is relatively rare and unpredictable. Similarly, some past translocations have been unreliable with an abundance of failures and inadequate experimental designs. We conclude that because of major uncertainties regarding habitat, population phenomena (e.g., Allee effect) and restoration techniques, outcomes of translocations remain unpredictable; thus, future efforts must be a part of sound and rigorous peer-reviewed research. To improve scientific efforts, we recommend the following BMPs for future translocations: (1) target bobwhite abundance should be \u3e800 post-translocation which will likely necessitate ≥600 ha of suitable and accessible habitat while a larger (e.g., \u3e800 ha) area will be needed in areas with lower carrying capacity and when sites are highly fragmented or isolated, (2) personnel should identify and avoid stressors to bobwhites in all phases of the translocation process (i.e., capture, holding, transportation, and release), (3) source populations should be disease free and from similar environments and latitude; preferably from the nearest suitable source, (4) conspecifics should be present on recipient sites (5) birds should be released just before the breeding season (i.e., March or April), and (6) the translocation should incorporate robust short- and long-term bird (i.e., abundance and/or density) and habitat monitoring efforts (i.e., the Coordinated Implementation Program (CIP) of the National Bobwhite Conservation Initiative (NBCI)). In conclusion, we note that translocation of bobwhites is not a panacea for broad scale restoration of bobwhites; however, the technique should remain at the forefront of bobwhite science, taking into account knowledge of the species’ life history and ecology, so that a practical and reliable solution can be developed. We recognize this paper is just the beginning of vigorous debate, testing of concepts, and on-the ground implementation of successful bobwhite conservation