Patterns of rabies cases in South Africa between 1993 and 2019, including the role of wildlife

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT : The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in DALRRD. (2019). Rabies Data South Africa from http://www.daff.gov.za/daffweb3/Branches/Agricultural-Production-Health-Food-Safety/Animal-Health/Epidemiology/diseasedatabase], reference number [17].Rabies is a global viral zoonosis endemic to South Africa, resulting in fatal encephalitis in warm-blooded animals, including humans. The loss of human lives and economic losses in rural areas through loss of livestock are substantial. A review was conducted of all confirmed animal rabies cases in South Africa from 1993 to 2019, with a total of 11 701 cases identified to species level to assess the role that wildlife plays in the epidemiology of rabies. A spatio-temporal cluster analysis using a discrete Poisson space-time probability model, accounting for underlying estimated dog and livestock densities, identified 13 significant clusters (p < .05). These included four long-term clusters lasting more than 8 years in duration and seven short-term clusters lasting less than 2 years, with the remaining two clusters being of intermediate length. Outside of these endemic clusters, wildlife outbreaks in the remainder of South Africa were often less than one and a half years in duration most likely due to the rapid decline of wildlife vectors, especially jackals associated with rabies infection. Domestic dogs accounted for 59.8% of cases, with domestic cats (3.2%), livestock (21.1%) and wildlife (15.8%) making up the remainder of the cases. Yellow mongoose (Cynictis penicillata) was the most frequently affected wildlife species, followed by bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis), black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas), meerkat (Suricata suricatta) and aardwolf (Proteles cristatus). Rabies in wildlife species followed different spatial distributions: black-backed jackal cases were more common in the north-western parts of South Africa, yellow mongoose cases more frequent in central South Africa, and bat-eared fox and aardwolf cases were more frequent in southern and western South Africa. Clusters often spanned several provinces, showing the importance of coordinated rabies control campaigns across administrative boundaries, and high-risk areas were highlighted for rabies in South Africa.The South African Veterinary Association Wildlife Group.http://wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/tbedhj2023Centre for Veterinary Wildlife StudiesProduction Animal StudiesVeterinary Tropical Disease

Oral bait preferences for rabies vaccination in free-ranging black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) and non-target species in a multi-site field study in a peri-urban protected area in South Africa

Black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) are small meso-predators that occur in the wild and around cities and towns in southern Africa and have been associated with the spread of rabies in South Africa. Oral bait rabies vaccine has been used in Europe and the USA for the control of rabies in reservoir species. The effectiveness of an oral vaccination strategy depends not only on the efficacy of the vaccine but on the uptake of the bait in the target species. This study evaluated factors associated with the uptake of oral bait by free ranging jackal and other wildlife species in a multi-site field study in Gauteng Province, South Africa. Three different baits were offered: commercial fishmeal polymer, pieces of red meat and chicken heads. Bait uptake was observed using camera traps and patterns of uptake assessed by multiple correspondence analysis and Cox proportional hazards models. In general, all the baits were well accepted with an uptake of 91%. Median consumption time of bait for jackal was 18 h (IQR: 8−21 hours; range 7−66 hours) and for all other species it was 21 h (IQR: 4–44, range 1–283). In species other than jackals there was a faster uptake in the winter months when less food was available, and the vegetation was sparse, whereas jackal showed no seasonal preference. Jackal consumed 20% of baits placed and took all three bait types but showed a clear preference for chicken heads if available (Hazard ratio (HR) = 3.41; 95%CI: 1.16–9.99; p = 0.025). Species other than carnivores preferred fishmeal polymer or red meat. Jackals showed no preference for time of day whereas herbivores and other species clearly preferred day; other carnivores preferred either day or night but not both, depending upon species. This study showed that chicken heads may be the preferred bait type for oral vaccination of black-backed jackal in this area, and that consideration should be given to placing bait during summer and at dusk, in order to minimize uptake by non-target species.The South African Wildlife group research grant and Merial, USA who sponsored the placebo vaccines.http://www.elsevier.com/locate/prevetmed2021-02-01hj2020Production Animal Studie

Immunogenicity of Newcastle Disease vaccine in southern ground-hornbill (Bucorvus leadbeateri)

The southern ground-hornbill (Bucorvus leadbeateri; hereafter SGH) is endangered in South Africa, Namibia, and Swaziland. Through a conservation program established in South Africa by the Mabula Ground Hornbill Project, wild populations are being re-established by the reintroduction of captive-reared birds. The SGH is susceptible to infection with avian avulavirus 1, which causes Newcastle disease (ND). Four different vaccines to protect against ND were administered through various vaccination schedules and evaluated by serologic monitoring to assess the efficiency and safety of various combinations of vaccines (live versus inactivated/killed), vaccine strains (Ulster strain, live; Avivac Cellimune, live; VG/GA strain, live; and Avivac Struvac, killed), and administration routes (intraocular versus subcutaneous versus intramuscular injection versus oral). We vaccinated 75 individuals and evaluated antibody titers in 53 individuals (24 juveniles, 13 subadults, and 16 adult SGH; 26 males and 27 females) over a period of 9 years. Antibody titers to avian avulavirus 1 in sera were monitored by a hemagglutination inhibition test. Protective titers were generated with 3/6 vaccine regimes tested in the SGH. The highest vaccine titers were established in birds vaccinated with the Ulster strain in the conjunctiva and followed with an intramuscular Struvac injection (mean log2 titer 8.6 ± 2.6) booster. Our aim was 1) to assess whether optimal vaccination protocols could be developed and 2) to then be able, by oral administration, to remove the need to recapture free-roaming, reintroduced birds to administer the initial vaccine or booster, thus remove the threat or mortality associated with ND to this endangered avian species in both captive birds and birds released back into the wild.The Mabula Ground Hornbill Project, including major US partners Virginia Zoo, Disney Conservation Grant, SeaWorld and Busch Gardens Conservation Fund, and San Diego Zoo Global.https://www.aav.org/page/jamshj2021Centre for Veterinary Wildlife StudiesProduction Animal Studie

Thoracic limb morphology of the red panda (<i>Ailurus fulgens</i>) evidenced by osteology and radiography

The red panda (Ailurus fulgens) is distributed primarily in the Himalayas and southern China. It is classified as a vulnerable species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The aim of this study was to describe the normal osteology and radiographic anatomy of the thoracic limb of the red panda. Radiography of the right thoracic limb was performed in seven captive adult red pandas. Radiographic findings were correlated with bone specimens from three adult animals. The scapula was wide craniocaudally and presented with a large area for the origin of the teres major muscle. The square-shaped major tubercle did not extend proximal to the head of the humerus. The medial epicondyle was prominent. A supracondylar foramen was present. The radial tuberosity and sesamoid bone for the abductor digiti I longus were prominent. The accessory carpal bone was directed palmarolaterally. Metacarpal bones were widely spread. The thoracic limb morphology of the red panda evidenced by osteology and radiography indicated flexibility of the thoracic limb joints and well-developed flexor and supinator muscles, which are important in arboreal quadrupedal locomotion. Knowledge gained during this study may prove useful in identifying skeletal material or remains and diagnosing musculoskeletal diseases and injuries of the thoracic limb