Detection of pathogenic <i>Leptospira</i> by <i>lipL32</i> qPCR in soil samples according to environmental characteristics of the sampling sites within the urban slum community.

<p>None of the measured variables showed significant differences between <i>lipL32-</i>positive and <i>lipL32-</i>negative samples in bivariate or multivariate analysis.</p

Summary of sampling data and results obtained by <i>lipl32</i> and 16S rRNA qPCR (presence/absence and concentration) for the three sites investigated.

<p>Summary of sampling data and results obtained by <i>lipl32</i> and 16S rRNA qPCR (presence/absence and concentration) for the three sites investigated.</p

Environmental sampling and qPCR detection of <i>Leptospira</i> DNA in the community site.

<p>Sampling of soil and sewage (circles) at three sites (A, B, and C) within the Pau da Lima field site. Positive and negative samples by <i>lipL</i>32 qPCR are depicted as red and open circles, respectively.</p

The Pau da Lima community site in Salvador, Brazil.

<p>(A) Aerial photograph of the community site (red border), which encompasses three valleys. The locations of the three sites of environmental sampling are indicated by white rectangles. (B) Topographic map that demonstrates differences in elevation at the site. Open sewage draining systems are depicted in dark red. (C) Photograph of the community, depicting a representative valley and squatter households. Panels A and B were created with ArcGIS using copyright-free aerial photographs provided by the Salvador municipality.</p

Quantification of pathogenic <i>Leptospira</i> in the soils of a Brazilian urban slum - Fig 4

<p>Phylogenetic trees of (A) <i>lipl32</i> and (B) 16S rRNA <i>Leptospira</i> amplicons from soil and water samples collected at the community site. The trees were constructed using Maximum Likelihood method with HKY85 substitution model. A bootstrap of 1000 replicates was performed and values above 600 are shown in the nodes. <i>Leptonema illini</i> was used as the outgroup for the 16S rRNA tree, and samples colored in green were positive for both 16S rRNA and <i>lipl32</i> qPCRs.</p

Cathelicidin Insufficiency in Patients with Fatal Leptospirosis

<div><p>Leptospirosis causes significant morbidity and mortality worldwide; however, the role of the host immune response in disease progression and high case fatality (>10–50%) is poorly understood. We conducted a multi-parameter investigation of patients with acute leptospirosis to identify mechanisms associated with case fatality. Whole blood transcriptional profiling of 16 hospitalized Brazilian patients with acute leptospirosis (13 survivors, 3 deceased) revealed fatal cases had lower expression of the antimicrobial peptide, cathelicidin, and chemokines, but more abundant pro-inflammatory cytokine receptors. In contrast, survivors generated strong adaptive immune signatures, including transcripts relevant to antigen presentation and immunoglobulin production. In an independent cohort (23 survivors, 22 deceased), fatal cases had higher bacterial loads (<i>P</i> = 0.0004) and lower anti-<i>Leptospira</i> antibody titers (<i>P</i> = 0.02) at the time of hospitalization, independent of the duration of illness. Low serum cathelicidin and RANTES levels during acute illness were independent risk factors for higher bacterial loads (<i>P</i> = 0.005) and death (<i>P</i> = 0.04), respectively. To investigate the mechanism of cathelicidin in patients surviving acute disease, we administered LL-37, the active peptide of cathelicidin, in a hamster model of lethal leptospirosis and found it significantly decreased bacterial loads and increased survival. Our findings indicate that the host immune response plays a central role in severe leptospirosis disease progression. While drawn from a limited study size, significant conclusions include that poor clinical outcomes are associated with high systemic bacterial loads, and a decreased antibody response. Furthermore, our data identified a key role for the antimicrobial peptide, cathelicidin, in mounting an effective bactericidal response against the pathogen, which represents a valuable new therapeutic approach for leptospirosis.</p></div

Serum protein levels validate expression profiles of specific gene products identified by microarray.

<p>Serum protein levels of cathelicidin (CAMP [LL-37]) <b>(A)</b> and RANTES <b>(D)</b> were higher in survivors, while HGF <b>(B)</b> and IL-18 <b>(E)</b> serum levels were higher in deceased patients. <b>(C)</b> Deceased patients had higher serum of CHI3L1 than survivors, in contrast to microarray results. <b>(F)</b> Elastase levels did not differ between outcomes. N = 23 for Survivors (S; blue triangles) and N = 22 for and deceased patients (D; red circles) for <b>(A-E)</b>. N = 14 for survivors and N = 15 for deceased patients in <b>(F)</b>. Filled symbols denote individuals included in microarray analyses. Values are medians +/- IQR in pg/mL <b>(B-E)</b> or ng/mL <b>(A, F)</b>.</p

Risk factors associated with death in leptospirosis patients.

<p>Risk factors associated with death in leptospirosis patients.</p

Specific transcripts associated with case fatality.

<p>Values are the average normalized log₂ fold-change of signal intensities ± Standard Error of the Mean for select transcripts in Groups 1–3 described in <a href="http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.ppat.1005943#ppat.1005943.g001" target="_blank">Fig 1</a>. The gene names are shown on the left and the functional annotation is shown on the right. Genes were selected based on their fold-change in Deceased vs Survivor (DvS) comparisons and had significant q values.</p

Characteristics of leptospirosis patients during hospitalization.

<p>Characteristics of leptospirosis patients during hospitalization.</p