Atmar and Bernol farms : new Acheulean sites in the lower Sundays River Valley, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

In this paper,we document two newAcheulean sites located in alluvial terraces bordering the lower Sundays River, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. These terraces have been the subject of geomorphological studies in the past, and most recently they have been dated using the cosmogenic nuclide burial method (Erlanger et al. 2012; Granger et al. 2013). Here, we provide new data that help improve our understanding of the Eastern Cape Earlier Stone Age (ESA) sequence by providing a basic assessment of site context, artefact typology and technology at two datedAcheulean locations: Atmar (0.65±0.12 Ma) and Bernol (1.14±0.20 Ma) Farms. Until now,we have relied on two sites to interpret this region’s early archaeology, Amanzi Springs and Geelhoutboom, the former being the only site to ever be excavated. This research thus provides the first well-dated ESA sites for this region, confirming the presence of Acheulean artefacts within these terraces, originally described by Ruddock (1957). Key trends in artefact production include: simple core reduction strategies on primarily cobble blanks; low levels of reduction on all cores and formal tools; retouched tools occur primarily on flake blanks with little emphasis on careful edge modification; large cutting tools (LCTs) are variable in size and shape, flake blanks are favoured and shaped through bifacial reduction across large portions of the tools, yet cortex is retained on most, which overall indicates that shaping is limited.The University of Pretoria, the University of the Witwatersrand, the Palaeontological Scientific Trust (PAST) and its Scatterlings of Africa programmes, which provided bursary support to M.G.L., and the National Research Foundation (NRF). K.K. acknowledges the NRF (grant number 81782) for fieldwork costs and bursary support.http://www.archaeologysa.co.za/saabAnthropology and Archaeolog

The atlas of StW 573 and the late emergence of human-like head mobility and brain metabolism

Functional morphology of the atlas reflects multiple aspects of an organism’s biology. More specifically, its shape indicates patterns of head mobility, while the size of its vascular foramina reflects blood flow to the brain. Anatomy and function of the early hominin atlas, and thus, its evolutionary history, are poorly documented because of a paucity of fossilized material. Meticulous excavation, cleaning and high-resolution micro-CT scanning of the StW 573 (‘Little Foot’) skull has revealed the most complete early hominin atlas yet found, having been cemented by breccia in its displaced and flipped over position on the cranial base anterolateral to the foramen magnum. Description and landmark-free morphometric analyses of the StW 573 atlas, along with other less complete hominin atlases from Sterkfontein (StW 679) and Hadar (AL 333-83), confirm the presence of an arboreal component in the positional repertoire of Australopithecus. Finally, assessment of the cross-sectional areas of the transverse foramina of the atlas and the left carotid canal in StW 573 further suggests there may have been lower metabolic costs for cerebral tissues in this hominin than have been attributed to extant humans and may support the idea that blood perfusion of these tissues increased over the course of hominin evolution.The DST-NRF for sponsoring the Micro-XCT facility at Necsa, and the DST-NRF and Wits University for funding the microfocus X-ray CT facility in the ESI. The Ghent University Special Research Fund (BOF-UGent) for the financial support of the Centre of Expertise UGCT (BOF.EXP.2017.0007), the Sterkfontein excavations and MicroCT scanning work have been provided by National Research Foundation and by PAST.http://www.nature.com/srepam2021Anatom

Bipedalism or bipedalisms: The os coxae of StW 573

There has been a long debate about the possibility of multiple contemporaneous species of Australopithecus in both eastern and southern Africa, potentially exhibiting different forms of bipedal locomotion. Here, we describe the previously unreported morphology of the os coxae in the 3.67 Ma Australopithecus prometheus StW 573 from Sterkfontein Member 2, comparing it with variation in ossa coxae in living humans and apes as well as other Plio‐Pleistocene hominins. Statistical comparisons indicate that StW 573 and 431 resemble humans in their anteroposteriorly great iliac crest breadth compared with many other early australopiths, whereas Homo ergaster KNM WT 15000 surprisingly also has a relatively anterioposteriorly short iliac crest. StW 573 and StW 431 appear to resemble humans in having a long ischium compared with Sts 14 and KNM WT 15000. A Quadratic Discriminant Function Analysis of morphology compared with other Plio‐Pleistocene hominins and a dataset of modern humans and hominoids shows that, while Lovejoy's heuristic model of the Ardipithecus ramidus os coxae falls with Pongo or in an indeterminate group, StW 573 and StW 431 from Sterkfontein Member 4 are consistently classified together with modern humans. Although clearly exhibiting the classic “basin shaped” bipedal pelvis, Sts 14 (also from Sterkfontein), AL 288‐1 Australopithecus afarensis, MH2 Australopithecus sediba and KNM‐WT 15000 occupy a position more peripheral to modern humans, and in some analyses are assigned to an indeterminate outlying group. Our findings strongly support the existence of two species of Australopithecus at Sterkfontein and the variation we observe in os coxae morphology in early hominins is also likely to reflect multiple forms of bipedality

Florisbad and not equal to Gi: The contribution of open-air sites to study of the Middle Stone Age in southern Africa

Site formation and disturbance are evaluated for two open-air sites of the Middle Stone Age (MSA)--Florisbad, South Africa, and $\not=$Gi, Botswana. Artifact assemblages are analyzed by methods appropriate to each site: re-fitting of conjoining artifacts, classification of major and minor artifact damage, on-site distribution of patination, size-profiling, vertical distribution plotting, artifact dips and orientations. Analysis of artifact attributes suggests predominant functions and demonstrates a highly curated/reduced industry for $\not=$Gi, while Florisbad tools are used expediently because of readily available raw materials. Sixteen sedimentary units at Florisbad contain Holocene Later Stone Age, a late Pleistocene hiatus, and 12 units of MSA antiquity, three of which have assemblages large enough to evaluate: (1) The basal units contain an earlier MSA, broadly associated with the Florisbad archaic Homo sapiens and the Florisian Land Mammal Age fauna. (2) Unit M has a highly retouched form of MSA. (3) Unit F (above) contains a large assemblage of manufacturing debris, plus a small number of formal tools and more numerous utilized flakes used predominantly in butchering. These horizons accumulated during a series of brief visits to the site. Debris was buried gently by spring sediments with no loss or significant disturbance. Two units at $\not=$Gi contain MSA similar to the Bambatan of Zimbabwe. The industry is highly retouched and reduced. Points are the most heavily curated and most abundant type. Edge-wear shows that cutting is the predominant function at the site which, like Florisbad, was used for a specialized activity. The industry represents a long-term accumulation along a river margin. Its condition indicates some exposure to trampling and a relatively slow rate of sedimentation. The main unit shows only minor hydrological disturbance but the assemblage below accumulated under a mix of more turbulent and quiescent conditions. This study demonstrates that open sites can make a greater contribution to MSA studies than is currently appreciated if in-depth investigation of site history is attempted. It further concludes that some variation in MSA industries is related to the expedient or conserved use of raw materials

Florisbad and not equal to Gi: The contribution of open-air sites to study of the Middle Stone Age in southern Africa

Site formation and disturbance are evaluated for two open-air sites of the Middle Stone Age (MSA)--Florisbad, South Africa, and $\not=$Gi, Botswana. Artifact assemblages are analyzed by methods appropriate to each site: re-fitting of conjoining artifacts, classification of major and minor artifact damage, on-site distribution of patination, size-profiling, vertical distribution plotting, artifact dips and orientations. Analysis of artifact attributes suggests predominant functions and demonstrates a highly curated/reduced industry for $\not=$Gi, while Florisbad tools are used expediently because of readily available raw materials. Sixteen sedimentary units at Florisbad contain Holocene Later Stone Age, a late Pleistocene hiatus, and 12 units of MSA antiquity, three of which have assemblages large enough to evaluate: (1) The basal units contain an earlier MSA, broadly associated with the Florisbad archaic Homo sapiens and the Florisian Land Mammal Age fauna. (2) Unit M has a highly retouched form of MSA. (3) Unit F (above) contains a large assemblage of manufacturing debris, plus a small number of formal tools and more numerous utilized flakes used predominantly in butchering. These horizons accumulated during a series of brief visits to the site. Debris was buried gently by spring sediments with no loss or significant disturbance. Two units at $\not=$Gi contain MSA similar to the Bambatan of Zimbabwe. The industry is highly retouched and reduced. Points are the most heavily curated and most abundant type. Edge-wear shows that cutting is the predominant function at the site which, like Florisbad, was used for a specialized activity. The industry represents a long-term accumulation along a river margin. Its condition indicates some exposure to trampling and a relatively slow rate of sedimentation. The main unit shows only minor hydrological disturbance but the assemblage below accumulated under a mix of more turbulent and quiescent conditions. This study demonstrates that open sites can make a greater contribution to MSA studies than is currently appreciated if in-depth investigation of site history is attempted. It further concludes that some variation in MSA industries is related to the expedient or conserved use of raw materials

The Acheulean in South Africa, with announcement of a new site (Penhill Farm) in the lower Sundays River Valley, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

Our understanding of the South African Acheulean is heavily biased towards sites located in the interior of the country, namely in the Cradle of Humankind and those located along the Vaal and Orange Rivers. Although these sites have contributed significantly to our understanding of this complex tradition, our interpretations are often limited due to issues with site and assemblage preservation, and dating. It is therefore necessary to locate, excavate, and describe new sites and assemblages from a wider range of environments so that we can understand crucial aspects of hominid behaviour within a variety of ecological, climatological, and environmental contexts. Only two Acheulean sites have been recorded in the Eastern Cape Province (e.g., Amanzi Springs and Geelhoutboom) and of these only one has ever been excavated (Amanzi Springs). As a result there have been no well-described and dated Acheulean assemblages in this province, even though several authors have noted the presence of this material. This paper provides an introduction to a new study region in South Africa: the lower Sundays River Valley. By providing a detailed review of the South African Acheulean, we discuss the significance of this new study region in relation to our wider understanding of the South African Acheulean.This work was supported by the University of Pretoria and the University of the Witwatersrand, the Palaeontological Scientific Trust (PAST) and its Scatterlings of Africa programs, which provided bursary support to MGL, and the National Research Foundation (NRF). KK acknowledges the NRF (grant number 81782) for fieldwork costs and bursary support.http://www.elsevier.com/locate/quaint2018-10-12hj2017Anthropology and Archaeolog

Quantifying the Reduction Intensity of Handaxes with 3D Technology: A Pilot Study on Handaxes in the Danjiangkou Reservoir Region, Central China

<div><p>This paper presents an approach to analyzing the reduction intensity of handaxes with the aid of 3D scanning technology. Two quantitative reduction indices, the Scar Density Index (SDI) and the Flaked Area Index (FAI), are applied to handaxes from the third terrace of the Danjiangkou Reservoir Region (DRR), central China, dated to the Middle Pleistocene. The results show that most of the DRR handaxes in this sample show moderate reduction, which also reflects a least-effort reduction strategy and a generally short use-life for these tools. Detailed examination of the DRR handaxes by sector reveals that the tips generally show the most reduction, while the bases show the least shaping, with cortex often preserved on the base to facilitate handling. While western Acheulean assemblages in this regard are variable, there are many examples of handaxes of varying age with trimming of the bases. We also found no significant differences in the levels of reduction between the two main raw materials, quartz phyllite and trachyte. However, the type of blank used (large flakes versus cobbles) and the type of shaping (bifacial, partly bifacial and unifacial) do play a significant role in the reduction intensity of the DRR handaxes. Finally, a small number of handaxes from the younger (the early Late Pleistocene) second terrace of the DRR was compared with those from the third terrace. The results indicate that there is no technological change in the reduction intensity through time in these two DRR terraces.</p></div

Segmentation of a 3D scanned handaxe (No. 1994, 93) into three proportional sectors.

<p>Segmentation of a 3D scanned handaxe (No. 1994, 93) into three proportional sectors.</p

Formation processes at the early Late Pleistocene archaic human site of Lingjing, China

Lingjing, located in northern China, is an open-air spring site dated to ∼90–125 ka through Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating. Two late archaic human crania, which possess a mosaic of features indicative of both eastern Eurasian and Neanderthal ancestry, were excavated from the site, along with abundant animal fossils and stone artifacts. Despite Lingjing's obvious significance, detailed analyses of the processes that have influenced site formation and modification have not yet been performed. In this paper we provide an interpretation of the depositional context at Lingjing and we also provide an assessment of the level of site disturbance, both during and post-deposition. Sedimentary and archaeological indicators are employed in this study, and results show that there is differential modification of the stratigraphic horizons, primarily between lower layer 3 and the overlying upper layers 2 and 1. Although this disturbance is apparent, overall its extent is limited. The findings in this study therefore confirm that assemblage integrity at Lingjing is high, and that behavioural information is well preserved.The Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (No. XDA19050102), the Chinese Academy of Sciences Pioneer Hundred Talents Program, the Chinese Academy of Sciences Strategic Priority Research Program Grant (No. XDPB05), the Shandong University 111 Project (111-2-09), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41672020). MGL would like to acknowledge funding support provided by the National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa and the Palaeontological Scientific Trust (PAST) with its Scatterings of Africa programs. KK also acknowledges the NRF support (grant number 88480) for her collaborative work in China.http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas2019-08-01hj2018Anthropology and Archaeolog