Resource mapping and emergency preparedness to infectious diseases in human and animal populations in Kibaha and Ngorongoro districts, Tanzania

A rapid situation analysis was conducted in Kibaha and Ngorongoro districts in Tanzania to map resources as well as analysing emergency preparedness to infectious diseases in animal (domestic and wild) and human populations. Kibaha was chosen as a district close to a commercial city (Dar es Salaam) while Ngorongoro represented a remote, border district with high interactions between humans, domestic and wild animals. In this study, data on resources and personnel as well as emergency preparedness were collected from all wards (n = 22), human health facilities (n = 40) and livestock facilities in the two districts using interview checklists and questionnaires. Descriptive statistics for resources were calculated and mapped by district. Kibaha district had a higher human population density, more health workers, better equipped health facilities and better communication and transport systems. On the other hand, Ngorongoro had a higher population of livestock and more animal health facilities but a poorer ratio of animal health workers to livestock. The average ratio of health personnel to population in catchment areas of the health facilities was 1:147 (range of 1:17−1:1200). The ratio of personnel to human population was significantly higher in Kibaha (1:95) than in Ngorongoro (1:203) district (p = 0 &lt; 0.001). Considering the limited resources available to both human and animal health sectors and their different strengths and weaknesses there are opportunities for greater collaboration and resource-sharing between human and animal health for improved surveillance and emergency-preparedness.</jats:p

Socio-Ecological Systems Analysis and Health System Readiness in Responding to Dengue Epidemics in Ilala and Kinondoni Districts, Tanzania

IntroductionSince 2010, Tanzania has been experiencing frequent outbreaks of dengue. The objectives of this study were to carry out a socio-ecological systems (SES) analysis to identify risk factors and interventions and assess the readiness of the district in the prevention and control of dengue.MethodsThe study utilized a cross-sectional purposive selection of key stakeholders responsible for disease surveillance and response in human and animal sectors in Ilala and Kinondoni districts in Tanzania. A SES framework was used to identify drivers and construct perceived thematic causal explanations of the dengue outbreaks in the study districts. A mapping exercise was carried out to analyse the performance of the disease surveillance system at district and facility levels. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to assess the districts’ readiness in the response to dengue outbreak.ResultsThe two districts were characterized by both urban and peri-urban ecosystems, with a mixture of planned and unplanned settlements which support breeding and proliferation of Aedes mosquitoes. The results indicate inadequate levels of readiness in the management and control of dengue outbreaks, in terms of clinical competence, diagnostic capacities, surveillance system and control/prevention measures. Mosquito breeding sites, especially discarded automobile tyres, were reported to be scattered in the districts. Constraining factors in implementing disease surveillance included both intrapersonal and interpersonal factors, lack of case management guidelines, difficult language used in standard case definitions, inadequate laboratory capacity, lack of appropriate rapid response teams, inadequate knowledge on outbreak investigation and inadequate capacities in data management.ConclusionThe two districts had limited readiness in the management and control of dengue, in terms of clinical competence, diagnostic capacities, surveillance system and prevention and control measures. These challenges require the immediate attention by the authorities, as they compromise the effectiveness of the national strategy for community health support.</jats:sec

Seroprevalence and associated risk factors of chikungunya, dengue, and Zika in eight districts in Tanzania

Background: This study was conducted to determine the seroprevalence and risk factors of chikungunya (CHIKV), dengue (DENV), and Zika (ZIKV) viruses in Tanzania. Methods: The study covered the districts of Buhigwe, Kalambo, Kilindi, Kinondoni, Kondoa, Kyela, Mvomero, and Ukerewe in Tanzania. Blood samples were collected from individuals recruited from households and healthcare facilities. An ELISA was used to screen for immunoglobulin G antibodies against CHIKV, DENV, and ZIKV. Results: A total of 1818 participants (median age 34 years) were recruited. The overall CHIKV, DENV, and ZIKV seroprevalence rates were 28.0%, 16.1%, and 6.8%, respectively. CHIKV prevalence was highest in Buhigwe (46.8%), DENV in Kinondoni (43.8%), and ZIKV in Ukerewe (10.6%) and Mvomero (10.6%). Increasing age and frequent mosquito bites were significantly associated with CHIKV and DENV seropositivity (P < 0.05). Having piped water or the presence of stagnant water around the home (P < 0.01) were associated with higher odds of DENV seropositivity. Fever was significantly associated with increased odds of CHIKV seropositivity (P < 0.001). Visiting mines had higher odds of ZIKV seropositivity (P < 0.05). Conclusions: These findings indicate that DENV, CHIKV, and ZIKV are circulating in diverse ecological zones of Tanzania. There is a need to strengthen the control of mosquito-borne viral diseases in Tanzania

Rift Valley fever seropositivity in humans and domestic ruminants and associated risk factors in Sengerema, Ilala, and Rufiji districts, Tanzania

Objectives Data on Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) prevalence in urban settings and pastoral areas of Tanzania are scarce. We performed a cross-sectional study of RVFV seroprevalence and determinants in humans and animals from Ilala, Rufiji, and Sengerema districts of Tanzania. Methods Blood samples from the study participants were tested for anti-RVFV immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Logistic regression was used to determine association between exposure risk practices and RVFV seropositivity. Results The study involved 664 humans, 361 cattle, 394 goats, and 242 sheep. The overall anti-RVFV IgG seroprevalence in humans and animals was 2.1% (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.01-0.04) and 9.5% (n = 95, 95% CI 0.08-0.12), respectively. Seroprevalence in humans in Rufiji, Ilala, and Sengerema was 3.0% (n = 225, 95% CI 0.01-0.06), 1.8% (n = 230, 95% CI-0.005- 0.04), and 1.4% (n = 209, 95% CI 0.01-0.04), respectively (P >0.05). Seroprevalence in animals in Sengerema, Rufiji, and Ilala was 12.1% (n = 40, 95% CI 0.09-0.16), 11.1% (n = 37, 95% CI 0.08-0.15), and 5.4% (n = 18, 95% CI 0.03-0.08), respectively (P = 0.006). Handling of carcasses increased the odds of RVFV seropositivity 12-fold (odds ratio 11.84, 95% CI 1.97-71.16). Conclusion The study confirms previous occurrence of RVFV in multiple species in the study districts. Animal handling practices appear to be essential determinants of seropositivity

A systematic review on integration mechanisms in human and animal health surveillance systems with a view to addressing global health security threats

Lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis are neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) targeted for elimination by mass (antifilarial) drug administration. These drugs are predominantly active against the microfilarial progeny of adult worms. New drugs or combinations are needed to improve patient therapy and to enhance the effectiveness of interventions in persistent hotspots of transmission. Several therapies and regimens are currently in (pre-)clinical testing. Clinical trial simulators (CTSs) project patient outcomes to inform the design of clinical trials but have not been widely applied to NTDs, where their resource-saving payoffs could be highly beneficial. We demonstrate the utility of CTSs using our individual-based onchocerciasis transmission model (EPIONCHO-IBM) that projects trial outcomes of a hypothetical macrofilaricidal drug. We identify key design decisions that influence the power of clinical trials, including participant eligibility criteria and post-treatment follow-up times for measuring infection indicators. We discuss how CTSs help to inform target product profiles

Changing trends in mastitis

<p>Abstract</p> <p>The global dairy industry, the predominant pathogens causing mastitis, our understanding of mastitis pathogens and the host response to intramammary infection are changing rapidly. This paper aims to discuss changes in each of these aspects. Globalisation, energy demands, human population growth and climate change all affect the dairy industry. In many western countries, control programs for contagious mastitis have been in place for decades, resulting in a decrease in occurrence of <it>Streptococcus agalactiae </it>and <it>Staphylococcus aureus </it>mastitis and an increase in the relative impact of <it>Streptococcus uberis </it>and <it>Escherichia coli </it>mastitis. In some countries, <it>Klebsiella </it>spp. or <it>Streptococcus dysgalactiae </it>are appearing as important causes of mastitis. Differences between countries in legislation, veterinary and laboratory services and farmers' management practices affect the distribution and impact of mastitis pathogens. For pathogens that have traditionally been categorised as contagious, strain adaptation to human and bovine hosts has been recognised. For pathogens that are often categorised as environmental, strains causing transient and chronic infections are distinguished. The genetic basis underlying host adaptation and mechanisms of infection is being unravelled. Genomic information on pathogens and their hosts and improved knowledge of the host's innate and acquired immune responses to intramammary infections provide opportunities to expand our understanding of bovine mastitis. These developments will undoubtedly contribute to novel approaches to mastitis diagnostics and control.</p

Assessment of drug usage and antimicrobial residues in milk on smallholder farms in Morogoro, TanzaniaEvaluation de l'utilisation des medicaments et determination des residus antimicrobiens dans le lait dans les petites exploitations agricoles a Morogoro en Tanzanie

Questionnaire survey and on-farm inspection were used to establish types of drugs used to treat livestock diseases, to collect information on occurrence of clinical mastitis and milk discarding practices on 59 randomly selected smallholder dairy farms in Morogoro municipality, Tanzania. Milk samples were also collected for evaluation of antimicrobial drug residues using three tests; the Delvotest® SP, agar well diffusion and agar plate disc assays. On the day of farm visit, 25.4% of study farms had various drugs used to treat animals, categorised as antimicrobials (54.2%), anthelmintics (25.0%), anti-protozoans (8.3%), pesticides (8.3%) and anti-anaemics (4.2%). In addition, 25 farmers reported to have observed clinical mastitis in cows and 84% of them used intramammary infusions to treat infected quarters. During the validation, all the tests detected dihydrostreptomycin, oxytetracycline and gentamicin below the Codex Alimentarius recommended Maximum Residue Limit (MRL) but disparities were observed with reference to detection of penicillin residues. The DelvotestSP was found to be more reliable than the other two tests. Only 1 (1.7%) of 59 milk samples screened had antimicrobial residues as detected by the Delvotest SP suggesting that antimicrobial residues in milk in the smallholder farms in Morogoro municipality may not be a serious problem. Keywords: drugs, residues, smallholder farms, Morogoro, TanzaniaRsumOn a eu recours une enqute par questionnaire et une inspection au niveau des fermes, en vue de dterminer les types de mdicaments utiliss pour traiter les maladies animales, recueillir des informations sur l'incidence de la mammite clinique et sur les pratiques qui consistent jeter le lait, dans 59 petites fermes laitires choisies au hasard dans la municipalit de Morogoro en Tanzanie. Des chantillons de lait taient galement collects, afin d'valuer les rsidus de mdicaments antimicrobiens l'aide de trois tests: le Delvotest SP, le Test de diffusion en glose et le Test sur plaque l'agar. Le jour de la visite de la ferme, 25,4% des fermes faisant l'objet d'tudes avaient recours divers mdicaments pour traiter les animaux. Les mdicaments taient classs comme suit: antimicrobiens (54,2%), anthelminthiques (25%), antiprotozoaires (8,3%), pesticides (8,3%) et anti-anmiques (4,2%). Par ailleurs, 25 paysans ont dclar avoir observ la mammite clinique chez les vaches et 84% d'entre eux avaient recours aux infusions intramammaires pour traiter les quartiers infects. Lors de la validation, tous les tests dtectaient la dihydrostresptomycine, l'oxyttracycline et la gentamycine en-dessous de la limite maximum de rsidu recommande par le Codex Alimentarius, mais des disparits ont t notes quant la dtection de rsidus de pnicilline. Le Delvotest SP s'est avr plus fiable que les deux autres tests. Seul 1/59 chantillons de lait (1,7%) examins avait des rsidus antimicrobiens, tel que dtect par le Delvotest® SP, ce qui montre que les rsidus antimicrobiens dans le lait dans les petites fermes laitires dans la municipalit de Morogoro ne constituaient pas un srieux problme. Mots-cls: mdicaments, rsidus, petites exploitations agricoles, Morogoro, TanzanieBulletin of Animal Health and Production Journal Vol. 53(4) 2005: 234-24