Scottish experiences in the impact of farm mechanisation on the employment and use of man labour, with observations on possible Indian problems in this field

One might rightly ask at the outset why a comparative study such as this has been undertaken, when socio- economic conditions of the two countries are so different that the nature of the problems confronting them hardly show any resemblance, and, therefore, a study of the approach involved in tackling the problems of the one is unlikely to be of much use in solving the problems of the other. In Scotland, for example, the necessity of introducing mechanisation to farm practices arose mainly fro the problem of shortage of farm labour and increasing level of wages, while in contrast, such conditions are almost absent in India. In India, on the contrary, surplus agricultural labour itself constitutes a serious unemployment problem and mechanisation alone in this context is therefore likely to aggravate the problem further.Sharp contrast also emerges when the economic conditions of the two countries are taken into consideration. The net income of an average Indian farmer, for example, hardly exceeds £25 or £30 annually whereas the net 2. yearly income of a backward Scottish stock - rearing farmer is above 2400. This feature is significant, and reflects the meagre financial capacity of an Indian farmer, a capacity which is too low to offer him any great possibility of mechanising his farm himself. Similarly, on the criterion of average size of holding, India stands very low (average size seldom exceeds 5 or 6 acres) in comparison with Scotland where the average size of holding is as high as 66 acres, which is obviously a significant factor in the application of mechanisation.These highlight the sharp contrasts that exist between the two countries leading to possible doubts concerning the usefulness of this study.The study has, however, been undertaken with two main objectives in view. In the first place, there is a pressing need to increase agricultural productivity in India in order to solve her own food problem and to cope with the developmental pace of Western countries To reach the same goal, it is a matter of urgency to develop and apply modern technology 3. to the processes of production and thereby to promote agriculture from audepressed industry" to an industry of prosperity. Mechanisation can perhaps play a vital role in this respect.In the second place, a country like India which happens to start her economic development late has some advantages in taking over and applying techniques that have been worked successfully in a more advanced country. Scotland, in this respect , deserves attenuion by her record of spectacular achievement in this field. She started mechanising her agriculture from the middle of the nineteenth century and development has gone on almost unchecked since then. Today, Scotland has one of the most highly mechanised mixed agricultures in the world.It is therefore likely that one who feels the necessity of modernising agriculture in his own home country will be interested to study the Scottish approaches to modernising farm practices, the economic background that stimulates the growth of mechanisation, the effect of farm mechanisation on employment of labour, skill of labour, type of farming and farm costs and incomes

Electronic Waste and Sustainability: Reflections on a Rising Global Challenge

Globalization, technological advancements, advent of the internet, near-universal availability of mobile phones and changing consumer preferences have led to a boom in the electrical and electronics industry. Such products are now available in almost all countries of the world. The increased availability and consumption of electronic products have also led to rapid rise in the volumes of electronic waste (e-waste) globally. Markets have traditionally not paid sufficient attention to post-consumption behavior for electronic products and hence safe disposal and management of e-waste has always remained a critical issue. There are significant sustainability issues related with e-waste at local as well as at global levels which call for increased attention of governments, businesses, and societies. This paper reflects on the sustainability aspects of e-waste and resulting global challenges. It also reviews the sustainability related issues due to e-waste from different approaches and offers discussion on the relevant policy implications

N.G. Chernyshevskii's economic views, with particular reference to the agrarian situation in mid-nineteenth century Russia

The purpose of this thesis is to examine those economic views of Chernyshevskii which arose from his attempt to give a solution for the agrarian problems of mid-nineteenth century Russia. Because Chernyshevskii was not a professional economist but a polemist, his writings cannot be understood without a detailed knowledge of the social and political conditions of his time. Accordingly, the first part of the thesis is devoted to an analysis of these conditions. In Part one, chapter one is concerned with the crisis in Russian feudalism, chapter two with the effect of forced labour on the Russian rural economy, chapter three with the condition of the gentry and the serfs, chapter four with the causes of the reform movements, and chapter five with the government's steps towards reform. In Part two Chernyshevskii's economic arguments in support of the abolition of serfdom, and his schemes for redemption payments, are analysed. Chapter one deals with his polemic against Tengoborskii on the superiority of hired labour over serf labour. Chapter two discusses his redemtion schemes. In Part three Chernyshevskii's dialectical theory of social development and his views on the commune are considered. Chapter one deals with his polemic against Vernadskii on the superiority of ? ownership over communal ownership over private ownership of the means of production. In Chapter two his theory of social development is analysed. Part four contains Chernyshevskii's critique of the political economy of his time, and his theory of socialist production. Chapter one presents his criticisms of the laissez-faire principle. Chapter two is concerned with his discussion of the scope and nature of political economy, and his "hypothetical method". Chapter three deals with his classification of labour into productive and unproductive labour. Chapter four examines his criticism of the Malthusian theory of population. Chapter five is concerned with Chernyshevskii's attitude towards different social formations with particular reference to capitalism. Chapter six discusses his theory of socialist production and his theory of the 'toiling masses'

DEVELOPMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION OF NOVEL HERBAL FORMULATION (POLYMERIC MICROSPHERES) OF SYZYGIUM CUMINI SEED EXTRACT

Objective: The purpose of the present investigation was to develop and characterize a novel herbal formulation (polymeric microspheres) of Syzygium cumini seed extract.Methods: The extract-loaded microspheres using biological macromolecule ethyl cellulose (EC) was prepared by o/w emulsion solvent evaporation technique using polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) emulsifier. The effect of various process and formulation variables (stirring speed, evaporation time, drug/polymer ratio and organic/aqueous phase ratio) on the properties of microspheres was evaluated.Results: Micromeritic properties indicated good flow properties, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) confirmed the spherical nature of the prepared microspheres. The particle size and entrapment efficiency were varied between 34.25 to 176.25 µm and 10.51 to 42% depending upon the variables. All the formulations showed minimal drug release in an acidic environment (pH 1.2) confirming the prevention of drug release in the stomach and enteric nature of the polymer. Sustained drug release has been observed in alkaline dissolution media (pH 7.4) after 12 h of drug release study except for formulation F7 which contains a lower concentration of polymer. The fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis indicated the compatibility of the extract with the polymer. The absence of extract-polymer interaction was indicated by the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) thermogram. x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis revealed the amorphous nature of the extract in the microspheres which in pure form exhibits a crystalline structure.Conclusion: The findings of this present study suggest that microsphere formulation was a promising carrier for novel delivery of herbal drugs

The nonnegative Q−matrix completion problem

In this paper, the nonnegative $Q$-matrix completion problem is studied. A real $n\times n$ matrix is a $Q$-matrix if for $k\in \{1,\ldots, n\}$, the sum of all $k \times k$ principal minors is positive. A digraph $D$ is said to have nonnegative $Q$-completion if every partial nonnegative $Q$-matrix specifying $D$ can be completed to a nonnegative $Q$-matrix. For nonnegative $Q$-completion problem, necessary conditions and sufficient conditions for a digraph to have nonnegative $Q$-completion are obtained. Further, the digraphs of order at most four that have nonnegative $Q$-completion have been studied