Linking the legal with the physical reality of 3D objects in the context of Land Administration Domain Model

The massive developments and uses of high rise buildings indicate that the demand for use of space above and below the ground surface is rapidly increasing in recent years. In the context of this thesis, the research is focused on exploring the possibilities of linking 3D legal RRR spaces, modeled with LADM (ISO 19152), with physical reality of 3D objects. The possibilities are explored towards the development of a prototype which is elaborated in two core stages: At first, a physical model is derived from the corresponding conceptual model, using existing national and international standards and then, its efficiency is tested using real world sample data, querying the database and visualizing the result in 3D environment. The conceptual modeling of the proposed model is based on the "people to land" relationship using LADM core concepts described with UML diagrams. Towards the conversion from conceptual model to implementation of a working prototype, the model is first converted into the INTERLIS modeling language, in order to be formally expressed including various constraints in a platform/ vendor neutral manner. INTERLIS is a standard modeling language for geodata exchange which is used to provide more direct implementable models and at the same time support the constraints. The model described, initially, with UML diagrams and especially the constraints in OCL cannot be automatically converted into implementations. During the prototype, emphasis is given at the exploitation of the capabilities of INTERLIS, under the scope of LADM, which is used in actual implementation of land administration system. INTERLIS tools are used to automatically generate implementation components for specific environments; e.g. database schema or exchange file format. Challenges among others during the system's development cycle include the following: how to express the various LADM constraints OCL and semi-formal in standard) formally in INTERLIS, how to include extensible hierarchical code lists in INTERLIS models (not natively available) and distinguish them from enumeration values, how to model 3D volumetric primitives in INTERLIS (not natively available), how to link two models (legal - physical) using cross domain constraints, etc. The system’s development cycle, is illustrated with a proposed model for MLAS in Greece. The model is based on international standards, covering a broader perspective than the existing one used today, including several types of objects and interests that are not currently registered by the Hellenic Cadastre. More precisely, utility networks (both the legal and their physical counterpart), planning zones, marine parcels and 3D (land) parcels are now included at the proposed model and organized appropriately. The different types of spatial units are organized in levels according to the LA_Level structure of LADM, ISO19152. This model is considered as an effort for overcoming these shortcomings, based on international standards, including the representation of a wide range of different types of spatial units, in three dimensions, aiming to establish an appropriate basis for the NSDI of Greece. It is a flexible proposal for comprehensive multipurpose LAS supporting both 2D and 3D cadastral registration in Greece. The prototype is developed in order to evaluate the strengths and limitations of the proposed conceptual model (linking legal and physical objects), as well as to investigate the efficiency and limitations of the existing technological (INTERLIS) tools. The process followed during the prototype development is cyclical and repetitive, providing feedback to the initial model during all the stages and improving it in terms of efficiency, reality and technical implementation. Finally, differences and similarities are mentioned from the comparison of the final (corrected) conceptual model, which results after the evaluation of the prototype, with the initial one. Conclusions and remarks made based on the database queries and visualization, as well as similarities, differences and patterns can be observed between the legal and physical objects. All the design and technical decisions that were taken during the system’s development cycle together with the problems arised, the solutions proposed and challenges for future work are described at the following chapters.GeomaticsOTBArchitecture and The Built Environmen

Investigating transport infrastructure objects within their spatial development lifecycle

Precise and detailed information for infrastructure assets, as well as information about the property interests attached to them are crucial to prevent unnecessary costs, disruptions, and delays when planning, constructing, and managing such objects. Various models encapsulating infrastructure objects information are available, mostly during their design stage, and could be also reused in other stages of the Spatial Development Lifecycle (SDL), such as the Land Registration. In this respect, and as ISO 19152:2012 Land Administration Domain Model is currently under revision, it is well-timed to consider the modelling of infrastructure objects within the scope of the upcoming Edition II of the standard. Given this background, the aim of this paper is to initiate the discussion on the registration options of infrastructure objects in the context of the LADM revision. Attention is given on specific categories of transport infrastructure objects, identifying the information required to be reused in other stages of the SDL, sourced from BIM/ IFC files used in the design stage. As currently IFC does not support infrastructure information, in order to investigate how such information is stored in IFC models based on the modellers' decisions and the software used, two models of transport infrastructure objects coming from the industry were inspected and based on these findings, the conceptual modelling followed, based on the LADM concept. The paper aims to provide insights on to the limitations of the current use of IFC for transport infrastructure objects and propose the future steps to overcome them. GIS Technologi

Public Law Restrictions in the Context of 3D Land Administration—Review on Legal and Technical Approaches

Intense exploitation of land implies the development of multi-level, multi-purpose, overlap-ping and interlocking structures on 3D space, thus resulting in complex, stratified, 3D real property rights between individual owners, as well as restrictions. Legislation regulates the ownership status and use of land by imposing restrictions known as Public Law Restrictions (PLRs). PLRs extend to various fields and various legislative frameworks, such as the protection of archaeological sites, protection and maintenance of underground infrastructures and utilities, environmental protection, flying of unmanned air vehicles, etc. PLRs are usually investigated in the context of property rights and restrictions in the various Land Administration Systems worldwide, and do not often gain specific attention. However, it is noticed that the restrictions that arise from Public Law need to be investigated and classified, so that they can be better utilised in the property status of land ownership. This review paper investigates the legal statutes on PLRs within the context of 3D land administration and the stipulations used to provide unambiguous modelling of PLRs, as provided by the relative literature. Moreover, the PLRs applied in the 3D space, to clearly depict rights, restrictions and responsibilities on the relevant spatial unit (land, air, marine parcel, mine, utility network, etc.), are particularly examined. Therefore, this work is to critically review and assess the aforementioned approaches on PLRs’ registration, modelling and organisation, as provided by a literature survey, and provides an overall view of the requirements and challenges within the development of 3D Land Administration Systems also considering standardisation developments.GIS Technologi

Modelling 3D underground legal spaces in 3D Land Administration Systems

Two dimensional (2D) Land Administration Systems (LASs) do not adequately represent 3D underground objects. It is not easy to identify the owners of these objects and the relations between objects below and above the surface are not explicitly provided. A 3D LAS can however facilitate a better understanding, as well as a more efficient registration and clear visualisation of the Rights, Restrictions and Responsibilities (RRRs) of the 3D underground objects. To represent 3D underground objects, BIM/IFC (ISO 16739:2018) models can be used from design. The LADM (ISO 19152:2012) standard should be used to provide a formal language to register spatial and non-spatial information in LASs. In this paper a literature review is performed to develop a standardised workflow to model the legal spaces of BIM/IFC models of 3D underground objects according to the LADM in 3D LASs. With this workflow the user is provided with a general framework, where adherence to the BIM/IFC and LADM standards enhances interoperability, increases efficiency and reduces costs. More research needs to be done on validating the workflow with use cases.GIS Technologi

3D Cadastre and LADM - Needs and Expectations towards LADM Revision

The last decade, significant progress has been made in advancing the concept of 3D Cadastre and related technologies to facilitate its realisation. There are many examples of partial implementation and prototypes of 3D parcels registration around the world as stated by Kitsakis et al (2016) and Dimopoulou et al (2016) regarding selected countries. While standardisation in the land administration domain extends to 3D and even 4D representations, currently, there is no country that has a fully operational 3D Cadastre supporting all stages of the registration and dissemination (Van Oosterom et al, 2014). In the context of 3D Cadastre developments worldwide, the Land Administration Domain Model (LADM), ISO 19152, outlines the foundations for a 3D Cadastre and becomes one of the best candidates for unambiguously representing 3D Rights, Restrictions and Responsibilities (Kalogianni et al, 2017).The spatial development life cycle of an object begins outside the cadastral registration cycle and has a direct impact on how a specific development application is processed. Thus, in considering the changes required to allow a jurisdiction to register 3D objects, it is important to note the sphere of influence that could have an impact on 3D registration. These include multiple stakeholders and processes, which generate different user needs, as addressed at the previous section and also new opportunities that could be addressed on the current LADM version.To this purpose, this paper explores the needs and prospects towards further 3D modelling of the present LADM version, as derived by the current LADM experience in various countries worldwide in the context of the full spatial development cycle. Nevertheless, over the last few years the number of jurisdictions that are developing LADM-based country profiles,prototype systems and undertaking pilots using various physical models and data formats to achieve LADM implementation in the context of 3D Cadastre has become more significant.Those approaches can be mainly categorised as “fully operational” implementations and “partly-operational” implementations focusing on different aspects of 3D cadastre development cycle; e.g. submission of 3D survey plans, prototype stage; implementations that focus on visualisation, implementations that focus on constraints and validation rules, etc. Finally, within this context, this paper examines how current LADM version can efficiently meet the needs stated above and update user requirements for LADM in the context of the upcoming revision.OLD Department of GIS Technolog

LADM: the next phase

Eight years after its launch, many countries are using the Land Administration Domain Model to develop land administration systems. Christiaan Lemmen, Peter van Oosterom and Eftychia Kalogianni report on the implementations so far – as well as what to expect from the next version.Architectural Engineering +Technolog

Analysing 3D Land Administration developments and plans from 2010 to 2026

Administration questionnaires. The last FIG questionnaire 2022-2026 was just analysed and the FIG working week 2023 (Kalogianni et al. 2023, and in that paper the creation or update, organization and initial analysis of the results from the 4th FIG 3D Land Administration Questionnaire, as an activity of the FIG Working Group 3D Land Administration 2022-2026 was presented. By sharing this information among the countries/ jurisdictions, a comprehensive inventory will be created. It is expected that cooperation will improve, by learning from the different countries and jurisdictions, to support future developments in the field of 3D land administration. It is noted that, as LADM is finding increasing recognition (Kalogianni et al., 2021), it has been further incorporated into the various sections of the questionnaire. The completed questionnaires, per country are fully available via the participants’ page of the 3D Land Administration Working Group website. The responses have been analyzed and reported in various publications (van Oosterom et al. 2011, van Oosterom et al. 2014 and Shnaidman et al., 2019), while the initial analysis of the 4th Questionnaire has been recently presented by Kalogianni et al. (2023). This paper aims to provide an overview of the developments and plans from the initial questionnaire in 2010, till the future plans for 2026, based on the analyses that have been previously carried out (van Oosterom et al. 2011, van Oosterom et al. 2014 and Shnaidman et al., 2019) and highlighting the results of the analysis from the latest questionnaire. The initial results from the latest questionnaire have been presented by Kalogianni et al. (2023), providing the main outcome from the current status (December 2022), while highlighting the priority axes till 2026 related to the developments of 3D LAS. What is more, an assessment rubric is developed by the team that prepares and analyses the questionnaires, that is actually a scoring of the responses in the various sections of the four (4) questionnaires This assessment process is the first time that is being carried out and it is executed for eight (8) countries and presented in this paper.Digital Technologie

Modelling the legal spaces of 3D underground objects in 3D land administration systems

One of the significant challenges in current 2D Land Administration Systems (LAS) is defining and registering the Rights, Restrictions and Responsibilities (RRRs) attached to the underground objects. A 3D LAS can facilitate a better understanding, as well as a more efficient registration and clear visualisation of the RRRs than a 2D LAS, through 3D digital modelling of the legal ownership of underground objects below the surface. To register the objects below the surface in a 3D LAS, 3D physical data as well as 3D legal data shall either be registered and integrated into one model, or the physical and legal models shall be linked effectively. In the context of this paper, the IFC (ISO 16739:2018) is used to register the 3D physical data, while the Land Administration Domain Model (LADM, ISO 19152:2012) is used to structure the legal data. To achieve the link of the respective legal and physical data, the classes of the LADM are mapped to the elements of the IFC. A standardised workflow is presented in this paper where the inclusion of the legal, organisational and technical aspects of modelling the legal ownership results in a comprehensive approach to solve the challenges that currently prevent the registration of the RRRs of 3D objects below the surface in LASs. This paper also provides a general method for mapping the LADM classes to the IFC entities. Two case studies were conducted to assess the technical aspect of the workflow, where the RRRs of objects below the surface and the parcels above the surface were registered and visualised on the 3D geospatial visualisation platform CesiumJS.Green Open Access added to TU Delft Institutional Repository 'You share, we take care!' - Taverne project https://www.openaccess.nl/en/you-share-we-take-care Otherwise as indicated in the copyright section: the publisher is the copyright holder of this work and the author uses the Dutch legislation to make this work public.Digital Technologie

Requirements for Standardised Representation of Public Law Restrictions based on LADM

Legal relations applying to land are of significant importance for land administration. Such relations include Rights, Restrictions and Responsibilities, deriving both from Private and Public Law. However, only the former are normally registered within cadastral systems, while the latter are either not required to be registered, or are registered to individual, thematic registries. Restrictions deriving from Public Law are gradually increasing in number and complexity, and impose significant impacts on land management, thus introducing the need of systematically organising and registering them. Standardisation is considered a means of fulfilling this aim, as it provides a common framework within which, consensus among different stakeholders on a specific process or product is achieved. Within the field of land administration, the international Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) standard plays predominant role in standardising legal relations between beneficiaries and land parcels. Therefore, this paper aims to investigate the integration of Public Law Restrictions’ (PLRs) requirements, within the LADM context. As a first step, the PLRs are recognised and classified. Next, in relation to modelling based on LADM concept, three approaches are considered: 1. within the Administrative Package by adding subclasses for PLRs to the LA_Restriction class, 2. within the SpatialUnit Package by adding new specialisations and subclasses to the LA_SpatialUnit class (also extending the code list LA_RestrictionType with PLR types) and 3. again within the SpatialUnit Package, but by using the “level” concept of LADM and the class LA_Level (also extending the code list LA_RestrictionType). The different modelling approaches are identified and presented considering modelling efficiency, UML models’ complexity and extensibility, while the proposed modelling approach can be considered for further extending and refining the current LADM legal concept, to include PLRs in the context of its revision. After initial considerations, such as model clarity, completeness, but also model simplicity, the authors opted for the third approach, as the one that best fits the purpose of PLR standardisation, which is then further analysed in more detail. Challenges regarding standardisation of PLRs within the LADM context, are also addressed, with regards to the on-going LADM revision process.OLD Department of GIS Technolog

LADM country profiles development: aspects to be reflected and considered

The wider recognition and use of ISO 19152 LADM Edition I, is mainly documented through the country profiles that have been developed in multiple jurisdictions across the world. Various approaches for developing country profiles have been followed, without acting in accordance with a specific (official or unofficial) roadmap or methodology. This has resulted in an interesting mosaic of country profiles, which at the same time, highlights the need to outline the basic steps that need to be followed in order to develop a country profile. Currently, the revision of the LADM Edition I is ongoing, and the discussion for the development, maintenance and update of the existing and future LADM-based country profiles has been initiated. Therefore, it is considered a good timing to address the experience gained from the developed country profiles and introduce methodological steps for the development of country profiles.This paper reflects on the country profiles that have been developed so far, identifying similarities and discrepancies on the path followed, bearing in mind the scope and objective of the development of those profiles and their level of maturity, also conforming to the land registration system and national jurisdiction. Thus, the paper is separated in three main parts: the first part that introduces the LADM revision and its scope, reflects on the existing country profiles and outlines the components of the proposed methodology. The second part presents an LADM-based country profile for Malaysia, as an example application of the proposed methodology. Finally, the last part is dedicated to the discussion, conclusions and proposals for future steps in the context of LADM revision.GIS Technologi