Methodology for the strategy-oriented distribution of decision autonomy in global production networks

Multinational companies deal with production processes in various countries by operating global production networks. These production processes are allocated to production plants with different levels of autonomy regarding strategic and operative decisions. Typically, each plant and the whole network are managed by one or more network managers who have to deal with a decision overload in their daily business. 50% of their decisions are made in less than 9 minutes and only a small amount of decision tasks are dealt with for more than one hour. To reduce this dilemma, it was found that the distribution of decision autonomy can be enhanced. It depends on the company’s strategy and complexity dimensions in global production networks. However, so far there is little evidence on how to better distribute decision autonomy in global production networks in detail. Furthermore, it is not transparent at what level of cetralism a global production network should be managed without cutting the capabilities of production plants. This paper presents a methodology, which examines relevant strategy dimensions and derives guidance on how to distribute decisions in global production networks. First, the network and production strategies of global production networks are classified. Second, relevant complexity dimensions and decisions are introduced. Third, the influence of the distribution of decision autonomy on strategy dimensions is quantified by an impact model. Furthermore, the effect of complexity on the distribution of decision autonomy is quantified by an impact model. Here, the integration of empirical data was used to validate the different influences. Finally, the ideal distribution of decision autonomy for specific production plants in the global production network is derived. The methodology is applied in an industrial use case to prove its practical impact

Sources and persistence of human noroviruses in fresh produce chains and associated public health risks

Human norovirus is a frequent cause of gastroenteritis worldwide, and viewed as the most common cause of foodborne disease. Numerous norovirus outbreaks associated with fresh produce, especially soft-berries and lettuce are described. Risk management strategies need to be improved in order to reduce the foodborne norovirus disease burden from consumption of fresh produce. For this purpose, data on virus persistence, the relevance of norovirus contamination sources, and the efficacy of mitigation measures were obtained. Norovirus infectivity cannot be determined, and our results are based on the detection of norovirus genomes and infectivity estimates derived from murine norovirus (MNV-1), a commonly used surrogate to study human norovirus persistence. Norovirus GI.4 and GII.4, two strains commonly associated to foodborne norovirus disease, and MNV-1, were found to persist during post-harvest conditions of fresh raspberries and strawberries. Thus post-harvest contamination of berries and contamination during primary production, at least shortly before harvest, likely pose a public health risk. Avoiding norovirus contamination, rather than reducing the presence of persistent viruses on produce, is the preferred approach for ensuring food safety. Infected food handlers, contaminated surfaces and water, are considered to be relevant sources for norovirus contamination of fresh produce. To simulate the spread of noroviruses by food handler, quantitative data on virus transfer proportions from hands to fresh produce and vice versa were determined. The simulation showed that a single infected food handler picking raspberries may spread norovirus to up to 3 kg of raspberries, which may result in large number of infected consumers, given the model assumptions. In addition, the established farm-to-fork risk assessment confirmed food handlers not practicing good hand hygiene as one of the dominant sources of contamination, given the data and model used. To prevent norovirus cross-contamination between contaminated surfaces and fresh produce, the effect of wiping surfaces in reducing norovirus loads was studied. Cleaning wet spots with dry wipes was determined to efficiently reduce spot contamination on surfaces (removal of 104 noroviruses), however, spreading of noroviruses on surfaces by wiping may result in an increased public health risk at high initial virus loads. Noroviruses are found in various water sources. To investigate the potential of norovirus introduction by application of in water diluted pesticides, the persistence of noroviruses in such dilutions was studied. Noroviruses were found to frequently persist in pesticides, and their application may therefore pose a microbiological risk to public health if contaminated water is used for pesticides dilution. Current guidelines for fresh produce production fail to provide specific criteria on the required water quality. The established quantitative farm-to-fork risk assessment model provides a basis for food safety regulations, for example, by presenting a framework for deriving performance objectives for norovirus concentrations in water used to spray irrigate lettuce. A mean concentration of around 0.4 norovirus particles per liter was estimated to realize with 95% certainty an annual health target of less than 1 infection per 10,000 consumers of lettuce. These calculations are specific to the described lettuce chain and need to be reevaluated for other scenarios

Sources and persistence of human noroviruses in fresh produce chains and associated public health risks

Human norovirus is a frequent cause of gastroenteritis worldwide, and viewed as the most common cause of foodborne disease. Numerous norovirus outbreaks associated with fresh produce, especially soft-berries and lettuce are described. Risk management strategies need to be improved in order to reduce the foodborne norovirus disease burden from consumption of fresh produce. For this purpose, data on virus persistence, the relevance of norovirus contamination sources, and the efficacy of mitigation measures were obtained. Norovirus infectivity cannot be determined, and our results are based on the detection of norovirus genomes and infectivity estimates derived from murine norovirus (MNV-1), a commonly used surrogate to study human norovirus persistence. Norovirus GI.4 and GII.4, two strains commonly associated to foodborne norovirus disease, and MNV-1, were found to persist during post-harvest conditions of fresh raspberries and strawberries. Thus post-harvest contamination of berries and contamination during primary production, at least shortly before harvest, likely pose a public health risk. Avoiding norovirus contamination, rather than reducing the presence of persistent viruses on produce, is the preferred approach for ensuring food safety. Infected food handlers, contaminated surfaces and water, are considered to be relevant sources for norovirus contamination of fresh produce. To simulate the spread of noroviruses by food handler, quantitative data on virus transfer proportions from hands to fresh produce and vice versa were determined. The simulation showed that a single infected food handler picking raspberries may spread norovirus to up to 3 kg of raspberries, which may result in large number of infected consumers, given the model assumptions. In addition, the established farm-to-fork risk assessment confirmed food handlers not practicing good hand hygiene as one of the dominant sources of contamination, given the data and model used. To prevent norovirus cross-contamination between contaminated surfaces and fresh produce, the effect of wiping surfaces in reducing norovirus loads was studied. Cleaning wet spots with dry wipes was determined to efficiently reduce spot contamination on surfaces (removal of 104 noroviruses), however, spreading of noroviruses on surfaces by wiping may result in an increased public health risk at high initial virus loads. Noroviruses are found in various water sources. To investigate the potential of norovirus introduction by application of in water diluted pesticides, the persistence of noroviruses in such dilutions was studied. Noroviruses were found to frequently persist in pesticides, and their application may therefore pose a microbiological risk to public health if contaminated water is used for pesticides dilution. Current guidelines for fresh produce production fail to provide specific criteria on the required water quality. The established quantitative farm-to-fork risk assessment model provides a basis for food safety regulations, for example, by presenting a framework for deriving performance objectives for norovirus concentrations in water used to spray irrigate lettuce. A mean concentration of around 0.4 norovirus particles per liter was estimated to realize with 95% certainty an annual health target of less than 1 infection per 10,000 consumers of lettuce. These calculations are specific to the described lettuce chain and need to be reevaluated for other scenarios

De effectiviteit van desinfectieprocessen om virussen in voedsel te verminderen

Verse producten zoals groente en fruit worden tijdens het productieproces behandeld om de aantallen schadelijke micro-organismen te verlagen. Hiermee wordt zowel de houdbaarheid van het product verlengd, als het aantal ziekmakende micro-organismen verlaagd. Deze behandelingen zijn vooral effectief om bacteriën onschadelijk te maken, wat de kans verkleind dat consumenten er ziek van worden. Voor virussen is dit effect echter gering als de behandeling wordt uitgevoerd met de doseringen die de voedselindustrie momenteel gebruikt. Hogere doseringen zijn effectiever, maar tasten de voedselkwaliteit en de kleur en structuur van het product te veel aan. Dit blijkt uit een literatuurstudie van het RIVM naar de effectiviteit van desinfectieprocessen in de voedselindustrie op virussen. De studie is in opdracht van de Nederlandse Voedsel en Warenautoriteit (NVWA) uitgevoerd. Een van de mogelijke behandelingen is producten wassen in water waaraan desinfecterende stoffen zijn toegevoegd, zoals chloorverbindingen, waterstofperoxide of ozon. Verder wordt op kleine schaal gewerkt met behandelingen waarmee ook de micro-organismen worden bereikt die dieper in het product verscholen zitten, zoals het product behandelen met UV- of gammastralen of onder hoge druk plaatsen. Ze zijn echter het meest effectief bij doseringen die de voedselkwaliteit en het karakter ervan aantasten. Een veelbelovende oplossing lijkt de combinatie van verschillende behandelingsmethoden (de 'hurdle-technologie'). Op deze manier kan elke methode onder mildere condities of met een lagere intensiteit worden uitgevoerd, waardoor de structuur en kleur van het product wel behouden blijven. Zorgvuldig onderzoek is echter nodig naar welke combinaties het effectiefst zijn om virussen onschadelijk te maken en die tegelijkertijd de kwaliteit van de verse producten behouden.Fresh produce such as fruit and vegetables are treated during production to decrease the numbers of harmful microorganisms. This will extend the produce's shelf life and will reduce the numbers of pathogenic microorganisms on the food. These treatments are especially effective for the inactivation of bacteria, thereby reducing the risk of consumers becoming ill. However, viruses are not efficiently inactivated when treatment is performed with the doses currently used in the food industry. Higher doses may be more effective but adversely affect the quality, color and texture of the product. This has emerged from a literature review conducted by the National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM) on the effectiveness of disinfection processes for viruses in the food industry. The study was commissioned by the Dutch Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority (NVWA). One of the possible treatments is the washing of produce in water containing disinfectants, such as chlorine compounds, hydrogen peroxide or ozone. Other treatments that are applied on a small scale, such as treatment by UV or gamma rays or high-pressure processing, have the advantage that they not only affect the surface of produce but penetrate the produce to inactivate pathogens sheltered in e.g. crevices or seed pockets. However, they are most effective at doses that induce undesirable structural changes and deteriorate food quality. A promising solution is a combination of treatments ('hurdle technology'). This enables each treatment to be applied at low intensity, thus preserving the freshness and structure of produce but giving it a longer shelf life. The selection of hurdles needs to be made carefully to obtain effective virus inactivation while preserving the quality of the fresh produce

Kwantitatief risicoprofiel voor virussen in voedsel

Net als bacteriën kunnen virussen in voedsel risico's vormen voor de volksgezondheid. Over virussen is echter minder bekend. Het RIVM heeft daarom in kaart gebracht welke kennis beschikbaar is of juist ontbreekt om de volksgezondheidsrisico's te kunnen schatten (risicoprofiel). Hiervoor zijn drie virussen uitgelicht die via voedsel naar mensen kunnen worden overgedragen: hepatitis A-virussen in schelpdieren, norovirussen op verse groenten en fruit, en hepatitis E-virussen in varkensvlees. De inventarisatie is in opdracht van de Nederlandse Voedsel- en Warenautoriteit gemaakt. Algemene bevindingen In het algemeen blijkt dat het tot nu toe lastig is om het aantal virussen op producten op een betrouwbare manier te kunnen schatten. Dit komt gedeeltelijk omdat de methoden om de virussen aan te tonen sterk verschillen. Om de gezondheidsrisico's te kunnen inschatten is kennis over het aantal virussen juist nodig. De kans dat iemand ziek wordt is namelijk groter naarmate het aantal producten dat besmet is groter is, of wanneer het aantal virussen per product hoger is. De tekortkomingen van de methoden worden in dit rapport aangegeven en enkele aanbevelingen worden gedaan om de berekeningen van het aantal virussen realistischer te maken. Verder is geïnventariseerd welke factoren de kans vergroten dat voedsel besmet raakt tijdens de productie of de verwerking ervan. Bij rauwe of kwetsbare producten, zoals oesters, of verse groenten en fruit, is het immers niet mogelijk om de virussen eenvoudig onschadelijk te maken door voedsel te koken. Bevindingen onderzochte virussen Specifieker is het bij het norovirus belangrijk te achterhalen hoeveel virussen op groente en fruit terechtkomen via het irrigatiewater. Een andere mogelijke bron is via de handen of gereedschap tijdens de oogst en verwerking. Voor het hepatitis E-virus is het van belang te weten hoeveel varkens tijdens de slachtfase de infectie doormaken en zo besmette producten leveren. Als zij de hepatitis E-infectie eerder doormaken, is de besmetting voorbij en vormt dit geen risico meer voor de consument. Ook is inzicht nodig in de aantallen hepatitis E-virussen per product. Wat de schelpdieren betreft, is het relevant om te weten hoeveel virussen in het oppervlaktewater zitten waarin ze worden gekweekt, en in welke mate deze virussen in de schelpdieren achterblijven.Viruses, similar to bacteria, can pose a risk to human health when present in food, but comparatively little is known about them in this context. In a study aimed at the health risks posed by viruses in food products, the RIVM has inventoried both current knowledge and pertinent information that is lacking. The inventory, which is presented in this report as a so-called risk profile, focuses on three viruses that can be transmitted to humans through food consumption. These are the hepatitis A viruses in shellfish, noroviruses in fresh fruits and vegetables and hepatitis E viruses in pork. The study was commissioned by the Dutch Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority. General findings he general finding is that to date it has been difficult to obtain a reliable estimation of the number of viruses in food products. This is partly due to large differences in the methodologies currently used to detect viruses in food products. However, accurate information on the number of viruses in a food product is crucial to a reliable estimate of the health risk. The probability that any one person becomes infected increases with an increasing number of contaminated products, or with an increasing number of viruses per product. The shortcomings of the methods currently used to make such estimations are identified in this report, and recommendations are made for improvements that will enable a more realistic determination. Factors that increase the likelihood of food becoming contaminated with viruses during production or processing were also studied. For raw or fragile products, such as oysters, or fresh fruits and vegetables, viruses are not inactivated by heating because the foods are not cooked before consumption. Specific findings on the studied viruses With respect to fresh produce, it is important to estimate how many noroviruses come into direct contact with the fruits and vegetables through the irrigation system. Another possible but important source that needs to be characterized is the transfer of viruses from hands or tools to the food product during harvesting and/or processing. For hepatitis E virus, it is important to know how many pigs are infected at the time of slaughter as this could result in contaminated pork products. If the hepatitis E virus infection occurs months before slaughter, the pigs would likely have recovered by the time of slaughter and the products would not represent a health risk to the consumer. It is also important to determine the number of hepatitis E viruses per product. In terms of shellfish, it is relevant to know how many viruses are present in the surface waters in which they are cultured and the extent to which they remain in the shellfish up to the moment of consumption.VW

Multicenter Collaborative Trial Evaluation of a Method for Detection of Human Adenoviruses in Berry Fruit

The qualitative performance characteristics of a qPCR-based method to detect human adenoviruses in raspberries were determined through a collaborative trial involving 11 European laboratories. The method incorporated a sample process control (murine norovirus) and an internal amplification control. Trial sensitivity or correct identification of 25-g raspberry samples artificially contaminated with between 5×102 and 5×104 PFU was 98.5%; the accordance and concordance were 97.0%. The positive predictive value was 94.2%. The trial specificity or percentage correct identification of non-artificially contaminated samples was 69.7%; the accordance was 80.0% and the concordance was 61.7%. The negative predictive value was 100%. Application of a method for the detection of human adenoviruses in food samples could be useful for routine monitoring for food safety management. It would help to determine if a route of contamination exists from human source to food supply chain which pathogenic viruses such as norovirus and hepatitis A virus could follow

Ultraviolet Light Inactivation of Murine Norovirus and Human Norovirus GII: PCR May Overestimate the Persistence of Noroviruses Even When Combined with Pre-PCR Treatments

Transmission of gastroenteritis-causing noroviruses may be significant via contaminated surfaces. Measures for control, e.g. disinfection with ultraviolet irradiation (UV), are therefore necessary for interrupting this transmission. Human norovirus (HuNoV) GII.4 and Murine norovirus (MuNoV) were used to study the efficacy of UV for virus inactivation on dry glass surfaces. MuNoV inactivation was measured using viability assay and the reduction in viral RNA levels for both viruses using reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-QPCR). For each UV dose, two parallel sample groups were detected using RT-QPCR: one group was enzymatically pre-PCR treated with Pronase and RNAse enzymes, while the other was not treated enzymatically. In the viability assay, loss of infectivity and a 4-log reduction of MuNoV were observed when the viruses on glass slides were treated with a UV dose of 60 mJ/cm2 or higher. In the RT-QPCR assay, a steady 2-log decline of MuNoV and HuNoV RNA levels was observed when UV doses were raised from 0 to 150 mJ/cm2. A distinct difference in RNA levels of pretreated and non-pretreated samples was observed with UV doses of 450–1.8 × 103 mJ/cm2: the RNA levels of untreated samples remained over 1.0 × 10³ PCR units (pcr-u), while the RNA levels of enzyme-treated samples declined below 100 pcr-u. However, the data show a prominent difference between the persistence of MuNoV observed with the infectivity assay and that of viral RNA detected using RT-QPCR. Methods based on genome detection may overestimate norovirus persistence even when samples are pretreated before genome detection