Characterization of trbC, a new F plasmid tra operon gene that is essential to conjugative transfer.

We have characterized a previously unidentified gene, trbC, which is contained in the transfer region of the Escherichia coli K-12 fertility factor, F. Our data show that the trbC gene is located between the F plasmid genes traU and traN. The product of trbC was identified as a polypeptide with an apparent molecular weight (Ma) of 23,500 that is processed to an Ma-21,500 mature protein. When ethanol was present, the Ma-23,500 polypeptide accumulated; the removal of ethanol resulted in the appearance of the processed mature protein. Subcellular fractionation experiments demonstrated that the processed, Ma-21,500 mature protein was located in the periplasm. DNA sequence analysis showed that trbC encodes a 212-amino-acid Mr-23,432 polypeptide that could be processed to a 191-amino-acid Mr-21,225 mature protein through the removal of a typical amino-terminal signal sequence. We also constructed two different Kmr gene insertion mutations in trbC and crossed these onto the transmissible F plasmid derivative pOX38. We found that cells carrying pOX38 trbC mutant plasmids were transfer deficient and resistant to infection by F-pilus-specific phages. Transfer proficiency and bacteriophage sensitivity were restored by complementation when a trbC+ plasmid clone was introduced into these cells. These results showed that trbC function is essential to the F plasmid conjugative transfer system and suggested that the TrbC protein participates in F-pilus assembly

Biofilm Induced Tolerance towards Antimicrobial Peptides

Increased tolerance to antimicrobial agents is thought to be an important feature of microbes growing in biofilms. We address the question of how biofilm organization affects antibiotic susceptibility. We established Escherichia coli biofilms with differential structural organization due to the presence of IncF plasmids expressing altered forms of the transfer pili in two different biofilm model systems. The mature biofilms were subsequently treated with two antibiotics with different molecular targets, the peptide antibiotic colistin and the fluoroquinolone ciprofloxacin. The dynamics of microbial killing were monitored by viable count determination, and confocal laser microscopy. Strains forming structurally organized biofilms show an increased bacterial survival when challenged with colistin, compared to strains forming unstructured biofilms. The increased survival is due to genetically regulated tolerant subpopulation formation and not caused by a general biofilm property. No significant difference in survival was detected when the strains were challenged with ciprofloxacin. Our data show that biofilm formation confers increased colistin tolerance to cells within the biofilm structure, but the protection is conditional being dependent on the structural organization of the biofilm, and the induction of specific tolerance mechanisms

Ongoing Phenotypic and Genomic Changes in Experimental Coevolution of RNA Bacteriophage Qβ and Escherichia coli

According to the Red Queen hypothesis or arms race dynamics, coevolution drives continuous adaptation and counter-adaptation. Experimental models under simplified environments consisting of bacteria and bacteriophages have been used to analyze the ongoing process of coevolution, but the analysis of both parasites and their hosts in ongoing adaptation and counter-adaptation remained to be performed at the levels of population dynamics and molecular evolution to understand how the phenotypes and genotypes of coevolving parasite–host pairs change through the arms race. Copropagation experiments with Escherichia coli and the lytic RNA bacteriophage Qβ in a spatially unstructured environment revealed coexistence for 54 days (equivalent to 163–165 replication generations of Qβ) and fitness analysis indicated that they were in an arms race. E. coli first adapted by developing partial resistance to infection and later increasing specific growth rate. The phage counter-adapted by improving release efficiency with a change in host specificity and decrease in virulence. Whole-genome analysis indicated that the phage accumulated 7.5 mutations, mainly in the A2 gene, 3.4-fold faster than in Qβ propagated alone. E. coli showed fixation of two mutations (in traQ and csdA) faster than in sole E. coli experimental evolution. These observations suggest that the virus and its host can coexist in an evolutionary arms race, despite a difference in genome mutability (i.e., mutations per genome per replication) of approximately one to three orders of magnitude

TraR, a Homolog of a RNAP Secondary Channel Interactor, Modulates Transcription

Recent structural and biochemical studies have identified a novel control mechanism of gene expression mediated through the secondary channel of RNA Polymerase (RNAP) during transcription initiation. Specifically, the small nucleotide ppGpp, along with DksA, a RNAP secondary channel interacting factor, modifies the kinetics of transcription initiation, resulting in, among other events, down-regulation of ribosomal RNA synthesis and up-regulation of several amino acid biosynthetic and transport genes during nutritional stress. Until now, this mode of regulation of RNAP was primarily associated with ppGpp. Here, we identify TraR, a DksA homolog that mimics ppGpp/DksA effects on RNAP. First, expression of TraR compensates for dksA transcriptional repression and activation activities in vivo. Second, mutagenesis of a conserved amino acid of TraR known to be critical for DksA function abolishes its activity, implying both structural and functional similarity to DksA. Third, unlike DksA, TraR does not require ppGpp for repression of the rrnB P1 promoter in vivo and in vitro or activation of amino acid biosynthesis/transport genes in vivo. Implications for DksA/ppGpp mechanism and roles of TraR in horizontal gene transfer and virulence are discussed

Characterization, localization, and sequence of F transfer region products: the pilus assembly gene product TraW and a new product, TrbI.

The traW gene of the Escherichia coli K-12 sex factor, F, encodes one of the numerous proteins required for conjugative transfer of this plasmid. We have found that the nucleotide sequence of traW encodes a 210-amino-acid, 23,610-Da polypeptide with a characteristic amino-terminal signal peptide sequence; in DNA from the F lac traW546 amber mutant, the traW open reading frame is interrupted at codon 141. Studies of traW expression in maxicells in the presence and absence of ethanol demonstrate that the traW product does undergo signal sequence processing. Cell fractionation experiments additionally demonstrated that mature TraW is a periplasmic protein. Electron microscopy also showed that F lac traW546 hosts do not express F pili, confirming that TraW is required for F-pilus assembly. Our nucleotide sequence also revealed the existence of an additional gene, trbI, located between traC and traW. The trbI gene encodes a 128-amino-acid polypeptide which could be identified as a 14-kDa protein product. Fractionation experiments demonstrated that TrbI is an intrinsic inner-membrane protein. Hosts carrying the pOX38-trbI::kan insertion mutant plasmids that we constructed remained quite transfer proficient but exhibited increased resistance to F-pilus-specific phages. Mutant plasmids pOX38-trbI472 and pOX38-trbI473 expressed very long F pili, suggestive of a pilus retraction deficiency. Expression of an excess of TrbI in hosts carrying a wild-type pOX38 plasmid also caused F-pilus-specific phage resistance. The possibility that TrbI influences the kinetics of pilus outgrowth and/or retraction is discussed

Characterization of traX, the F plasmid locus required for acetylation of F-pilin subunits.

Acetylation of F-pilin subunits has previously been shown to depend upon expression of the F plasmid transfer operon gene traX. To assess the requirement for pilin acetylation in conjugative transfer of F, we constructed traX::kan insertion mutations and crossed them onto the transmissible F derivative pOX38. Under standard conditions, the function of traX seemed to be dispensable. Although pilin synthesized by mutant plasmids pOX38-traX482 and pOX38-traX483 was not acetylated, F-pilus production and F-pilus-specific phage infection appeared to be normal and transfer occurred at wild-type frequency. Analysis of labeled products showed that TraX+ plasmids expressed two approximately 24- (TraX1) and 22-kDa (TraX2) polypeptides that localized in the cytoplasmic membranes of cells. No product that was similar in size to the product predicted from the traX open reading frame (27.5 kDa) was detected. Therefore, we used site-directed mutagenesis, stop codon linker insertions, and phoA fusion analysis to investigate traX expression. Both TraX1 and TraX2 appeared to be encoded by the traX open reading frame. Insertion of a stop codon linker into the traX C-terminal coding region led to synthesis of two correspondingly truncated products, and fusions to phoA indicated that only the traX reading frame was translated. Expression was also very dependent on the traX M1 start codon; when this was altered, no protein products were observed. However, pilin acetylation activity was still detectable, indicating that some other in-frame start codon(s) can also be used. All sequences that are essential for activity are contained between traX codons 29 and 225. Sequence analysis indicated that traX mRNA is capable of forming a variety of base-paired structures. We suggest that traX expression is translationally controlled and that F-pilin acetylation activity may be regulated by physiological conditions in cells

Synthesis of F pilin.

Transfer of the Escherichia coli fertility plasmid, F, is dependent on expression of F pili. Synthesis of F-pilin subunits is known to involve three F plasmid transfer (tra) region products: traA encodes the 13-kDa precursor protein, TraQ permits this to be processed to the 7-kDa pilin polypeptide, and TraX catalyzes acetylation of the pilin amino terminus. Using cloned tra sequences, we performed a series of pulse-chase experiments to investigate the effect of TraQ and TraX on the fate of the traA product. In TraQ- cells, the traA gene product was found to be very unstable. While traA polypeptides of various sizes were detected early in the chase period, almost all were degraded within 5 min. Rapid traA product degradation was also observed in TraX+ cells, although an increased percentage of these products persisted during the chase. In TraQ+ cells, most of the traA product was processed to the 7-kDa pilin polypeptide within the 1-min pulse period; this product [7(Q)] was not degraded but was increasingly converted to an 8-kDa form [8(Q)] as the chase continued, suggesting that host enzymes can modify the pilin polypeptide. Similar results were observed in TraQ+ TraX+ cells, but the primary 7-kDa product appeared to be N-acetylated pilin (Ac-7). An 8-kDa product (Ac-8) was also detected, but this band did not increase in intensity during the chase. We suggest a pathway in which TraQ prevents the traA product from folding to a readily degradable conformation and assists its entry into the membrane, Leader peptidase I cleaves the traA product signal sequence, and a subset of the pilin polypeptides becomes modified by host enzymes; TraX then acetylates the N terminal of both the modified and unmodified pilin polypeptides

Construction and analysis of F plasmid traR, trbJ, and trbH mutants.

F plasmid derivatives carrying kan insertion mutations in the transfer region genes traR, trbJ, and trbH were constructed. Standard tests indicated that these loci are not essential for F pilus production or F transfer among Escherichia coli K-12 hosts. Among the traR and trbH mutants tested, the orientation of the kan cassette had no effect on the mutant phenotype. In each case, there was no significant effect on the appearance of F pili, the transfer frequency, or the plating efficiency of F-pilus-specific phages. The trbJ insertion carrying a kan gene oriented in the direction opposite to tra transcription had very little effect on phage sensitivity but markedly reduced the plasmid transfer efficiency. However, the kan insertion mutation at the same site, in the tra orientation, did not seem to affect either property. Analysis of clones carrying trbJ sequences regulated by a phage T7 promoter showed that trbJ expresses an approximately 11-kDa protein product. The TrbJ protein was not expressed from clones carrying a kan insertion or stop codon linker insertion in the trbJ sequence. However, it was expressed from clones that did not include sequences at the beginning of the 113-codon open reading frame in this region. Our data indicated that translation of trbJ must be initiated at the more distal GUG codon in this frame. This would result in expression of a 93-amino-acid polypeptide