Direct Interaction between Two Viral Proteins, the Nonstructural Protein 2CATPase and the Capsid Protein VP3, Is Required for Enterovirus Morphogenesis

In spite of decades-long studies, the mechanism of morphogenesis of plus-stranded RNA viruses belonging to the genus Enterovirus of Picornaviridae, including poliovirus (PV), is not understood. Numerous attempts to identify an RNA encapsidation signal have failed. Genetic studies, however, have implicated a role of the non-structural protein 2CATPase in the formation of poliovirus particles. Here we report a novel mechanism in which protein-protein interaction is sufficient to explain the specificity in PV encapsidation. Making use of a novel “reporter virus”, we show that a quasi-infectious chimera consisting of the capsid precursor of C-cluster coxsackie virus 20 (C-CAV20) and the nonstructural proteins of the closely related PV translated and replicated its genome with wild type kinetics, whereas encapsidation was blocked. On blind passages, encapsidation of the chimera was rescued by a single mutation either in capsid protein VP3 of CAV20 or in 2CATPase of PV. Whereas each of the single-mutation variants expressed severe proliferation phenotypes, engineering both mutations into the chimera yielded a virus encapsidating with wild type kinetics. Biochemical analyses provided strong evidence for a direct interaction between 2CATPase and VP3 of PV and CAV20. Chimeras of other C-CAVs (CAV20/CAV21 or CAV18/CAV20) were blocked in encapsidation (no virus after blind passages) but could be rescued if the capsid and 2CATPase coding regions originated from the same virus. Our novel mechanism explains the specificity of encapsidation without apparent involvement of an RNA signal by considering that (i) genome replication is known to be stringently linked to translation, (ii) morphogenesis is known to be stringently linked to genome replication, (iii) newly synthesized 2CATPase is an essential component of the replication complex, and (iv) 2CATPase has specific affinity to capsid protein(s). These conditions lead to morphogenesis at the site where newly synthesized genomes emerge from the replication complex

Requirements for Assembly of Poliovirus Replication Complexes and Negative-Strand RNA Synthesis

HeLa cells were transfected with several plasmids that encoded all poliovirus (PV) nonstructural proteins. Viral RNAs were transcribed by T7 RNA polymerase expressed from recombinant vaccinia virus. All plasmids produced similar amounts of viral proteins that were processed identically; however, RNAs were designed either to serve as templates for replication or to contain mutations predicted to prevent RNA replication. The mutations included substitution of the entire PV 5′ noncoding region (NCR) with the encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) internal ribosomal entry site, thereby deleting the 5′-terminal cloverleaf-like structure, or insertion of three nucleotides in the 3D(pol) coding sequence. Production of viral proteins was sufficient to induce the characteristic reorganization of intracellular membranes into heterogeneous-sized vesicles, independent of RNA replication. The vesicles were stably associated with viral RNA only when RNA replication could occur. Nonreplicating RNAs localized to distinct, nonoverlapping regions in the cell, excluded from the viral protein-membrane complexes. The absence of accumulation of positive-strand RNA from both mutated RNAs in transfected cells was documented. In addition, no minus-strand RNA was produced from the EMCV chimeric template RNA in vitro. These data show that the 5′-terminal sequences of PV RNA are essential for initiation of minus-strand RNA synthesis at its 3′ end

Phospholipase C and Diacylglycerol Mediate Olfactory Responses to Amino Acids in the Main Olfactory Epithelium of an Amphibian

The semi-aquatic lifestyle of amphibians represents a unique opportunity to study the molecular driving forces involved in the transition of aquatic to terrestrial olfaction in vertebrates. Most amphibians have anatomically segregated main and vomeronasal olfactory systems, but at the cellular and molecular level the segregation differs from that found in mammals. We have recently shown that amino acid responses in the main olfactory epithelium (MOE) of larval Xenopus laevis segregate into a lateral and a medial processing stream, and that the former is part of a vomeronasal type 2 receptor expression zone in the MOE. We hypothesized that the lateral amino acid responses might be mediated via a vomeronasal-like transduction machinery. Here we report that amino acid-responsive receptor neurons in the lateral MOE employ a phospholipase C (PLC) and diacylglycerol-mediated transduction cascade that is independent of Ca(2+) store depletion. Furthermore, we found that putative transient receptor potential (TRP) channel blockers inhibit most amino acid-evoked responses in the lateral MOE, suggesting that ion channels belonging to the TRP family may be involved in the signaling pathway. Our data show, for the first time, a widespread PLC- and diacylglycerol-dependent transduction cascade in the MOE of a vertebrate already possessing a vomeronasal organ