Shrinking pasture, burgeoning herds: Divergent adaptation to climate change in Tahoua, Niger

L’adaptació al canvi climàtic és un procés complex i dinàmic que s’ha observat que provoca capacitats adaptatives desiguals entre els múltiples actors d’un sistema socioecològic (SSE). Partint de les teories dels SSE sobre adaptació, aquesta tesi formula la pregunta: Com es relaciona l’adaptació divergent amb el conflicte i la cooperació en un SSE rural compartit entre actors pastorals i agro-pastorals? Per tal d’examinar les dinàmiques socials, ecològiques, institucionals i climàtiques, la tesi introdueix el concepte d’adaptació “divergent”. L’adaptació és divergent quan l’adaptació d’un grup d’actors provoca la subseqüent reducció de la capacitat adaptativa d’un altre grup d’actors en el mateix ecosistema, la qual cosa pot estar lligada a dinàmiques de cooperació i de conflicte. Per tal d’entendre l’adaptació divergent, he realitzat un estudi al Níger, un país amb nivells baixos de capacitat adaptativa que està situat al cor de la regió del Sahel-Sàhara, a l’Àfrica occidental. Diferents àrees d’estudi van ser seleccionades d’entre tres zones ecològiques a la regió de Tahoua: Tillia (una àrea principalment de pastura a la zona plujosa del Sahel-Sàhara), Keita (una àrea agro-pastoral a la zona del Sahel), i Madaoua (una zona principalment agrícola en el límit de la zona sudanesa-saheliana). La recerca ha tingut com a objectius: 1) entendre les percepcions dels canvis històrics, presents i futurs en els serveis dels ecosistemes i els mitjans de vida relacionats; 2) identificar les capacitats adaptatives dels múltiples actors; 3) explicar el ritme i el volum de la creació de “enclosures” al voltant de llacs efímers i permanents; i 4) analitzar les institucions multiescalars que donen suport a l’organització de l’espai rural i a la resolució dels seus conflictes. Les adaptacions divergents descrites en aquest estudi inclouen: l’expansió de cultius en zones de pastura, la introducció de pagaments per l’accés a l’aigua, i el desenvolupament d’horts de regadiu en llacs estacionals. L’adaptació divergent pot ser un procés que aporta més cooperació i equitat a la societat o pot augmentar els patrons ja arrelats d’injustícia i desigualtat. És un procés determinat pels patrons de degradació dels serveis dels ecosistemes, els règims canviants de propietat de la terra rellevants per les adaptacions, i el tipus i influència de les institucions en el procés d’adaptació. Basat en un exàmen exhaustiu de les adaptacions divergents, els resultats mostren que en les tres zones ecològiques l’expansió de cultius continua reemplaçant els sistemes mòbils de pasturatge, provocant conflictes en algunes ocasions. En aquest context, els mitjans de vida que depenen dels serveis dels ecosistemes d’aprovisionament i suport de l’agricultura són més destructius pels serveis múltiples que no pas els mitjans de vida i actors que es basen en el pasturatge. A Tillia, el foment dels pagaments per l’aigua contribueix als canvis en curs dels els règims de gestió de la terra, on els recursos passen de ser comuns i compartits a ser propietat privada. En una de les àrees de la zona oficial de pastures, la construcció de tancats al voltant de basses de reg comunes ha crescut a un ritme del 124% en un període de nou anys. Malgrat l’existència de lleis adequades per protegir els espais de pastures, aquestes rarament són aplicades, un problema agreujat pels conflictes en la governança, per una baixa responsabilitat i per la corrupció. Els participants en un grup de discussió sobre escenaris futurs de canvi climàtic van estar d’acord de manera unànime en què a les zones de pastures s’hi seguiran construint tancats i seran cultivades, atès especialment a què els pastors s’estan instal·lant en els poblats. L’adaptació divergent és un concepte de gran actualitat que pot ser de suma importància per a l’estudi de com l’adaptació i les capacitats adaptatives dels múltiples actors poden contribuir al conflicte i a la cooperació en el context de canvi climàtic. Aquesta tesi demostra empíricament la diversitat de fenòmens socials i ecològics que poden explicar el concepte d’adaptació divergent i contribueix en diversos àmbits científics i polítics pertinents per a la capacitat d’adaptació en SSE.Climate change adaptation is a complex and dynamic process that has been found to produce unequal adaptive capacities for multiple users across a social ecological system (SES). Stemming from SES theories on adaptation, this thesis asks the question: How does divergent adaptation link to conflict and cooperation in a rural ‘farmer-herder’ SES? To examine social, ecological, institutional and climatic dynamics, the thesis introduces the concept ‘divergent’ adaptation. Adaptation is divergent when one user or group’s adaptation causes a subsequent reduction in another user or group’s adaptive capacity in the same ecosystem, which may be linked to cooperation and conflict dynamics. To understand divergent adaptation, I performed a case study land and water use conflicts within and between agro-pastoral and pastoral groups in Niger, a country with low levels of adaptive capacity that is located in the heart of the Sahel-Sahara region of West Africa. Sites were selected within three ecological zones in the region of Tahoua: Tillia (a primarily pastoral area in the Sahelo-Saharan rainfall zone), Keita (an agro-pastoral area in the Sahel zone), and Madaoua (a primarily agricultural area on the edge of the Sudano-Sahel zone). The research aimed to: 1) understand perceptions of historical, present, and future changes to ecosystem services and related livelihoods; 2) identify the adaptive capacities of multiple users; 3) explain the pace and volume of the development of enclosures around ephemeral and permanent lakes; and 4) analyze multi-scalar institutions supporting the organization of the rural space and resolution of land and water access conflicts therein. The divergent adaptations described in this study include: expanding cultivation into pastoral areas, introducing payments for water access, and developing irrigated gardening on seasonal lakes. Divergent adaptation can be a process that builds more cooperation and equity in society or enhances entrenched patterns of injustice and inequality, a process determined by the patterns of degradation of ecosystem services, the shifting land tenure regimes relevant to adaptations, and the type and influence of institutions on the adaptation process. Based on a rigorous examination of divergent adaptations, findings show that across the three ecological zones, expanding cultivation continues to supersede mobile pastoral systems, sometimes resulting in conflict. In this context, the cultivating livelihoods dependent upon certain ecosystem services for agricultural production are more destructive to multiple ecosystem services than the livelihoods of pastoralists and the users themselves. In Tillia, the exhortation of water payments contributes to the ongoing shifts of land management regimes from commonly-shared to privately owned resources. In one location in the official pastoral zone, fencing-in of common watering holes has grown at a rate of 124% over a period of nine years as a result of irrigated gardening. While the Rural and Pastoral Codes are in place to protect pastoral space, they are rarely enforced, a problem exacerbated by conflicting governance, low accountability, and corruption. Stakeholders at climate change scenario focus group, unanimously agree that pasture will continue to be enclosed and cultivated, especially as pastoralists settle in villages, thus constraining resources. Divergent adaptation is a state-of-the-art concept relevant for the study of how the differential adaptive capacities of multiple users contributes to conflict and cooperation in the context of climate change. Given the empirical findings, this thesis demonstrates the need for more equitable and inclusive decision-making processes at multiple scales of adaptation in the SES

Governance and Management of the Nexus: Structures and Institutional Capacities

Sustaining the water-energy-food nexus for the future requires new governance approaches and joint management across sectors. The challenges to the implementation of the nexus are many, but not insurmountable. These include trade-offs between sectors, difficulties of communication across the science-policy interface, the emergence of new vulnerabilities resulting from implementation of policies, and the perception of high social and economic costs. In the context of the Sustainability in the W-E-F Nexus conference May 19-20, 2014, the session on ‘Governance and Management of the Nexus: Structures and Institutional Capacities’ discussed these problems as well as tools and solutions to nexus management. The session demonstrated three key findings: 1. Trade-offs in the Water-Energy-Food Nexus should be expanded to include the varied and shifting social and power relations; 2. Sharing knowledge between users and policy makers promotes collective learning and science-policy-stakeholder communication; and 3. Removing subsidies or seeking the ‘right price’ for domestic resources vis à vis international markets is not always useful; rather the first imperative is to gauge current and future costs at the national scale

Diverse Views of the Causes of Environmental Migration among Pastoralists in Northern Niger

Over the course of the last forty years, many Tuareg and WoDaaBe Fulani pastoralists in the Azawak Valley region near Abalak, Niger are pursuing a sedentary lifestyle in direct contradiction to the cultural values and adaptation mechanisms (e.g. mobility) of pastoralism. The result suggests a failure of Niger’s pastoral system. This study examines the environmental factors related to the migration from rural areas to urban centers, taking into account the social and political factors that shape the environment. Thus, this capstone responds to the question: What are the environmental factors that have contributed to the migration of pastoralists to cities and towns in the Azawak of Niger? By analyzing the life histories of former nomads, this study will illustrate the linkages between slow-onset environmental degradation and the process of migration to towns from the Azawak Valley (pastoral zone) in Niger. Research was undertaken over a period of 6 weeks from May to June 2010 in Abalak and Niamey, Niger with the participation of 15 households of former pastoralists and experts on the topic. Research methods involved a questionnaire, informal interviews, and participant observation. The questionnaire (derived using the Environmental Change and Forced Migration Scenarios [EACH-FOR] Project framework) captured case histories related to both personal livelihoods and motivations for settlement in towns. Case histories were collected from 11 men and 4 women aged 18 to 64 years old who have recently migrated to town (within the past 10 years). Interviews with non-migrants supplemented by secondary data from expert analyses provided triangulation for the study. Based mainly on the stories and perspectives of former pastoralists, the primary factors leading to migration to towns are directly related to environmental change

Transformational learning and engagement on climate action for students attending a climate negotiation

Abstract When Greta Thunberg addressed world leaders at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)’s 24th Conference of Parties (COP24), it highlighted how young people including Indigenous youth are seeking to influence international climate change negotiations. However, young people face barriers to effectively engaging in the COP processes with few opportunities to learn about the structure and practices for COP Observers. In this paper, we describe and evaluate a structured learning experience developed to support students conducting research related to climate change and their engagement with international climate negotiations. Before attending the COP24, students were given in-person and online training about the UNFCCC, its processes, and major issues under negotiation. They also developed and presented their work during a COP side event. Through pre- and post-surveys and in-depth interviews, we asked students about their expectations and degree of engagement and agency at the COP and more broadly on climate action. Students reported that the academic scaffolding before and during the COP provided most of the students with tools for navigating the complexities of the COP. For all of the students, learning through engagement with the COP24 process supported greater self-efficacy and literacy in relation to climate change action

The production of contested landscapes: Changes to ecosystem services in the Sahel

Across the globe, ecosystems are being degraded at an unsustainable rate due to both human and climatic factors. In the Sahel of West Africa, land degradation is caused primarily by agriculture and overgrazing. Climate change is a proximate factor in land degradation, due to the adaptation or coping mechanisms of pastoralists and agriculturalists. Access to ecosystem services such as soil, surface water, and forests can shift between user groups (such as pastoralists and agriculturalists) based on how institutions manage land and for what purpose. Land use change, promoted by the greater frequency of drought events in the dryland systems of the Sahel, such as conversion of pasture to cultivated land has the tendency to further degrade soil, increase runoff, and create conflict with users who rely on pastoral resources. While regenerative methods such as allowing nitrogen-fixing trees to grow in degraded soils have promoted what some have called a “greening” of the Sahel, such change is not widespread and does not necessarily resolve land use conflicts. The study of changing land use/land cover using satellite data linked to qualitative data related to changing ecosystem services, entitlements, and conflict in the same localities provides a new view of justice and ecosystem service distribution. Using remote sensing methods for change detection and time series analysis, as well as qualitative analysis of environmental histories, this article illustrates the inequities of current changes to ecosystem services in multiple rainfall zones in Niger, evaluated for both pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihoods. The case study focuses on Tahoua, Niger using a mixed method approach. Remote sensing high resolution images such as Quickbird-2, WorldView-2 and RapidEye allows for the detection of adaptation and changes to specific ecosystem services (including enclosures such as fences in pastoral areas or gardening activities). The temporal development in these regions was then analyzed for a period of 14 (1999 2000 – 2013) years using time series from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). Satellite images demonstrate the detection of changes to specific ecosystem services, like the increase of gardening, the presence/absence of fences, or the dynamics of seasonal lakes. In the same spatial region, we chose three villages in the different rainfall zones and performed more than 150 qualitative and expert interviews to assess the changes to ecosystem services for users within both rain-fed agricultural and pastoral systems of Niger. Results over a 15-year timescale show that cultivation is spreading even in the highly contested, government-designated ‘pastoral zone.’ Moreover, irrigated agriculture has grown significantly around ephemeral lakes in the same timescale. Most users perceive that the benefits supplied by ecosystems in the Sahel are waning as a result of multiple forces. For instance, the adaptations of diverse user groups to climate change hazards are often divergent and competitive, promoting further degradation of ecosystem services, especially services supporting pastoral livelihoods. Such degradation is most often perceived by users to be promoted by cultivation. These ‘divergent’ adaptations are supported by inequitable or corrupt institutional practices, which are shifting the entitlements to water-based shared ecosystem services and enabling dominant groups to enclose and cultivate such areas. This in turn reduces the access and viability of such services for more marginal groups. Understanding and evaluating changes to ecosystem services using this combined method of remote sensing and qualitative research can support and promote sustainable ecosystem management, especially in the context of climate change

The Production of Contested Landscapes: Enclosing the Commons in the Sahel

In the Sahel, land degradation is caused primarily by agriculture and overgrazing, and is exacerbated by high rates of rainfall variability. Access to ecosystem services provided by soil, water, and forests can shift between user groups (pastoralists and agriculturalists) based on how insti¬tutions manage land. Land use change, promoted by the greater frequency of drought events in the dryland systems of the Sahel, such as conversion of pasture to cultivated land has the tendency to further degrade soil, increase runoff, and create conflict with users who rely on pastoral resources. While regenerative methods such as planting nitrogen-fixing trees in degraded areas has promoted what some have called the “greening” of the Sahel, such change is not widespread and does not necessarily resolve land use conflicts. Using remote sensing methods for change detection and time series analysis, as well as qualitative analysis of environmental histories, this article eva¬luates the inequities of current changes to ecosystem services in multiple rainfall zones in Niger, evaluated for both pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihoods. The case study focuses on Tahoua, Niger using a mixed method approach. Remote sensing high-resolution images such as Quickbird-2, WorldView-2 and RapidEye allow for the detection of adaptation and changes to specific ecosystem services (enclosures in pastoral areas or around seasonal lakes). The temporal develop¬ment in these regions was then analyzed for a period of 14 (2000 – 2013) years using time series from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). Satellite images demonstrate the detection of changes to ecosystem services, like the increase of gardening, the presence/absence of fences, or the dynamics of seasonal lakes. In the same spatial region, we chose three villages in the different rainfall zones and performed 117 qualitative and expert interviews to assess the changes to ecosystem services for users within both rain-fed agricultu¬ral and pastoral systems. Results over a 14-year timescale show that cultivation is spreading even in the highly contested, government-designated ‘pastoral zone.’ Moreover, irrigated agriculture has grown significantly around ephemeral lakes in the same timescale. Most users perceive that the benefits supplied by ecosystems in the Sahel are waning as a result of multiple forces. The dominant perception is that degradation of soil and pastoral re¬sources is promoted by cultivation. These ‘divergent’ adaptations are supported by inequitable or corrupt institutional practi¬ces, which are shifting the entitlements to water-based shared ecosystem services and enabling dominant groups to enclose and cultivate such areas. Understanding and evaluating changes to ecosystem services using this combined method of remote sensing and qualitative research can support and promote sustainable ecosystem management, especially in the context of climate variability

The production of contested landscapes: enclosing the pastoral commons in Niger

Divergent adaptation to climate variability produces unequal adaptive capacities between user groups and contributes to a contested landscape. This article examines divergent adaptations in the context of land tenure shifts in the pastoral zone of Niger. The management of the pastoral commons is shifting from a commonly-shared to private regime as former pastoralists take up new livelihoods, such as irrigated gardening. A method combining political ecology and remote sensing is used to study social ecological system (SES) dynamics in order to demonstrate the relationship between divergent adaptation, water-based conflict, land tenure shifts and land use/land cover change. Examining pastoral and agro-pastoral users’ historical perceptions of land use and tenure change, results indicate that disputes over the access to and use of commonly shared natural resources are linked to increasing enclosures of ephemeral and permanent lakes in the pastoral zone of Niger. Remote sensing-derived information is used to identify and quantify the area and volume of enclosures around commonly shared water sources in the northern pastoral zone of Niger from 2003 to 2013. The study identifies the government-supported development of irrigated gardens in the pastoral zone as a divergent adaptation with its related conflict dynamics between user groups and highlights the land tenure shifts from a commonly to a privately managed regime. The findings have broader implications for the wider Sahel and provide recommendations as to how adaptation programs could be better designed and implemented in the pastoral system

Divergent adaptation to climate variability: a case study of pastoral and agricultural societies in Niger

Adaptation is a complex, dynamic, and sometimes unequal process. Stemming from social ecological systems theories of climate change adaptation and adaptive capacity, this case study introduces the concept of ‘divergent’ adaptation. Adaptation is divergent when one user or group's adaptation causes a subsequent reduction in another user or group's adaptive capacity in the same ecosystem. Using the example of pastoral and agricultural groups in northern and southern rainfall zones of Niger, this study illustrates the concept of divergent adaptation by identifying changes to the adaptive capacity of users who are currently engaged in conflicts over access to natural resources. Similar to other studies, we find that expansion of farmland and the consequent loss of pastoral space are restricting pastoral adaptation. Divergent adaptations favoring agricultural livelihoods include cultivating near or around pastoral wells or within pastoral corridors, both of which limit the mobility and entitlements of pastoralists. Institutions rarely secure pastoral routes and access to water points, a problem that is compounded by conflicting modes of governance, low accountability, and corruption. The case study illustrates the need to enhance the adaptive capacity of multiple user groups to reduce conflict, enhance human security, and promote overall resilience

Analyse floristique de la végétation steppique dans la région de Djelfa, Nord-Ouest algérien

This study is a floristic investigation of the steppe region of Djelfa located in northern Algeria, with the aim of characterizing and analysing the wild flora of this region. Four stations were chosen according to a stratified sampling method and phyto-ecological surveys were carried out in 32 plots of 100m2 each. This allowed us to identify 127 taxa of plants belonging to 33 families dominated by Asteraceae (29%) and Poaceae (12%). The analysis of biological types has shown the dominance of annual Therophytes (56%) in this flora, which indicates the presence of the phenomenon of Therophytization in these regions. This phenomenon was also measured by calculating the perturbation index. The analysis of chorological types has shown the dominance of the Mediterranean element (48%), with an interesting number of endemic taxa. However, all the endemic taxa cited in the literature for this region have not been found, which reinforces our fears about the state of conservation of these taxa of biological and heritage value