Therapeutic Non-Toxic Doses of TNF Induce Significant Regression in TNFR2-p75 Knockdown Lewis Lung Carcinoma Tumor Implants

<div><p>Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF) binds to two receptors: TNFR1/p55-cytotoxic and TNFR2/p75-pro-survival. We have shown that tumor growth in p75 knockout (KO) mice was decreased more than 2-fold in Lewis lung carcinoma (LLCs). We hypothesized that selective blocking of TNFR2/p75 LLCs may sensitize them to TNF-induced apoptosis and affect the tumor growth. We implanted intact and p75 knockdown (KD)-LLCs (>90%, using shRNA) into wild type (WT) mice flanks. On day 8 post-inoculation, recombinant murine (rm) TNF-α (12.5 ng/gr of body weight) or saline was injected twice daily for 6 days. Tumor volumes (tV) were measured daily and tumor weights (tW) on day 15, when study was terminated due to large tumors in LLC+TNF group. Tubular bones, spleens and peripheral blood (PB) were examined to determine possible TNF toxicity. There was no significant difference in tV or tW between LLC minus (-) TNF and p75KD/LLC-TNF tumors. Compared to 3 control groups, p75KD/LLC+TNF showed >2-5-fold decreases in tV (p<0.001) and tW (p<0.0001). There was no difference in tV or tW end of study vs. before injections in p75KD/LLC+TNF group. In 3 other groups tV and tW were increased 2.7-4.5-fold (p<0.01, p<0.0002 and p<0.0001). Pathological examination revealed that 1/3 of p75KD/LLC+rmTNF tumors were 100% necrotic, the remaining revealed 40-60% necrosis. No toxicity was detected in bone marrow, spleen and peripheral blood. We concluded that blocking TNFR2/p75 in LLCs combined with intra-tumoral rmTNF injections inhibit LLC tumor growth. This could represent a novel and effective therapy against lung neoplasms and a new paradigm in cancer therapeutics.</p></div

Tumor histology.

<p>Representative images of tumor H&E stained sections from four treatment groups, light microscopy at ×40 magnification. <b>(A)</b> Intact LLC in WT host injected with saline - viable tumor composed of highly pleomorphic malignant epithelial cells and brisk mitotic index. No necrosis seen. <b>(B)</b> p75KD/LLC in WT host injected with saline - viable carcinoma showing high mitotic activity and rare apoptotic bodies. <b>(C)</b> Intact LLC in WT host injected with rmTNF - partially viable carcinoma with focal necrosis and mild inflammatory change. <b>(D)</b> p75KD/LLC in WT host injected with rmTNF - massively necrotic tumor with no viable cells present. There was moderate acute inflammatory infiltrate in the tumor tissue. Please note that dotted circles in <i>A</i>, <i>B</i> and <i>C</i> indicate representative mitotic tumor cells.</p

Summary of tumor tissue morphologic assessment.

<p>Morphological findings in four treatment groups including - mitotic counts, area of necrosis, inflammatory infiltrate and major morphological findings. To avoid inter-observer variability a single clinical pathologist who was blinded to treatment conditions had evaluated H&E and PAS stained slides for all four treatment groups.</p

Flank tumor appearance at the end of the study and graphic representation of tumor volumes and weights. (A)

<p>Representative images of mice with flank tumors in (left to right) intact LLC in WT host injected with saline; p75KD/LLC in WT host injected with saline showing that knocking down p75/TNFR2 in LLC does not affect LLC growth in the WT host; intact LLC in WT host injected with rmTNF showing that injecting low dose exogenous rmTNF stimulates WT LLC growth in WT host; and p75KD/LLC in WT host injected with rmTNF showing that knocking down p75/TNFR2 in LLC and injecting <i>very</i> low dose of exogenous rmTNF significantly inhibits LLC growth in WT host. <b>(B)</b> Flank tumor volumes collected from 5–10 mice/treatment group before the first rmTNF injection (day 8 after initial tumor inoculations) and at end of the study (day 15 after initial inoculations). <b>(C)</b> Graphic representation of completely bisected flank tumor weights data collected from 5–10 mice/treatment at end of the study.</p

Numerical simulation results of the mathematical model.

<p>Total tumor populations (black solid curves) made up of viable tumor cells (<i>V</i>, green) and necrotic cells (<i>N</i>, red) quickly approach vascular carrying capacity (<i>K</i>, grey) and continue to growth after carrying capacity increase through host angiogenic response to necrosis-secreted TNF (<i>F</i>, grey dot-dashed). <b>(A)</b> Slowly emerging necrotic cells secrete TNF (<i>F</i>, grey dot-dashed) that stimulates transient angiogenesis through host cells and p75-competent cancer cells. Intact LLC tumor volume closely follows the increasing carrying capacity. Final necrotic tumor fraction is ∼2%. Experimentally measured tumor volumes (grey box plots) shown for model validation. <b>(B)</b> p75KD-LLC tumor growth dynamic mimic intact LLC growth. Smaller tumor growth due to impaired pro-angiogenic signaling through p75. Final necrotic tumor fraction is ∼7%. Experimentally measured tumor volumes (blue box plots) shown for model validation. <b>(C)</b> Carrying capacity transiently increases through injection of rmTNF (<i>F</i>, grey dot-dashed, in blue highlighted time interval) initially stimulating tumor growth. Increase in necrotic mass limits tumor growth to below carrying capacity. Final necrotic tumor fraction is ∼19%. Experimentally measured tumor volumes (red box plots) shown for model validation. <b>(D)</b> Carrying capacity transiently increases through injection of rmTNF (<i>F</i>, grey dot-dashed, in blue highlighted time interval) initially stimulating p75KD/LLC+rmTNF tumor growth and later dwarfing tumor growth through TNF-induced cell death and increasing necrosis. Final necrotic tumor fraction is ∼39%. Experimentally measured tumor volumes (magenta box plots) shown for model validation. Model parameters: <i>α = 10</i>, <i>β = 0.06</i>, <i>γ = 0.02</i>, <i>ζ = 0.5</i>, <i>δ = 6.2</i>, <i>η_h = 6</i>, <i>η_c = 0.025</i> (<i>η_c = 0</i> for p75KD/LLC+rmTNF), <i>θ = 0.24</i>, <i>ε = 6</i> (<i>ε</i> = <i>0</i> on non-treatment days), <i>ω = 0.003</i>, <i>φ = 0.02</i>.</p

Evaluation of tumor and EC apoptosis.

<p>Apoptosis and tumor angiogenesis was evaluated in tumor tissues by triple immunostaining with terminal transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL), CD31 and Topro-3. The tumor area was identified by H&E staining of adjacent sections. <b>(A–D)</b> Representative images of triple-immunostained tumors for TUNEL (red), CD31 (green) and Topro-3 (blue); Insets identified by dashed squares in A–D indicate higher magnification of the selected areas in solid squares. Arrowheads indicate TUNEL (+) cells (red); block arrows indicate CD31 (+) cells (green) and arrows indicate double TUNEL/CD31 (+) cells (red/green and yellow). <b>(E)</b> Quantification and graphic representation of only TUNEL (+) cells in all four treatment groups. <b>(F)</b> Quantification and graphic representation of double TUNEL/CD31 (+) cells in all four groups.</p

Figure 1

<p>(A) Evaluation of p75 receptor expression in p75 shRNA transfected tumor cells by western blot analysis. Lanes 1, 2, 3 and 4 were transfected with various combinations of p75 target shRNA as previously described <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0092373#pone.0092373-Sasi1" target="_blank">[13]</a>. To confirm specificity of the bands we ran positive and negative control protein lysates recommended by the p75 antibody manufacturer. Actin expression was used as loading control. Compared to the expression of p75 receptor in intact tumor cells (lane 5) target sequences of p75 shRNA #1 and #3 showed no detectable expression of TNF receptor p75 (compare lane 5 to lanes 1 and 3). (B) Experimental design and body weight change over the course of the study. Intact LLC (LLC) and LLC with knockdown of TNFR2/p75 (p75KD/LLC) were inoculated into mice flanks (1 × 10⁶ cells). LLC group consisted of WT mice that were injected with intact LLCs (<i>n</i>  =  15) and p75KD/LLC consisted of WT mice that were injected with stably transfected (≥90%) p75KD/LLCs (<i>n</i>  =  15). The two major groups WT host/LLC and WT host/p75KD/LLC were further divided into four groups: LLC minus (−) TNF consisted of WT mice inoculated with intact LLC that were injected with saline (<i>n</i>  =  5), LLC plus (+) TNF consisted of WT mice with intact LLC that were injected with rmTNF (<i>n</i>  =  10), p75KD/LLC-TNF consisted of WT mice with p75KD/LLC that were injected with saline (<i>n</i>  =  5) and p75KD/LLC+TNF consisted of WT mice with p75KD/LLCs that were injected with rmTNF (<i>n</i>  =  10). Tumor growth was monitored on a daily basis post-inoculation. Body weight data were plotted as a graph between tumor volume (mm³) and time period after tumor inoculation for all groups. Tumors, including peri-tumoral stroma, were carefully bisected to make sure that tumor structure is intact and tumors were weighted. Tumors, femurs, spleens and peripheral blood were collected for histology staining to evaluate possible treatment toxicity and inflammatory responses.</p

Evaluation of possible exogenous rmTNF toxicity in bone marrow and spleen.

<p>Representative images of H&E stained bone marrow and spleen tissue. <b>(A–B)</b> Bone marrow - There was granulocytic hyperplasia in the BM of mice with necrotic tumors in rmTNF-injected groups, reflected by a shift of the myeloid/erythroid ratio (∼3:1 vs. ∼8:1) in the BM (erythroid islands indicated within the encircled areas). <b>(C–F)</b> Spleen - There was a marked increase in extramedullary hematopoiesis in spleens of mice with necrotic tumors in rmTNF injected indicated by the cellularity within the encircled regions between normal lymphoid tissue (white pulp).</p

Cardiovascular Risks Associated with Low Dose Ionizing Particle Radiation

<div><p>Previous epidemiologic data demonstrate that cardiovascular (CV) morbidity and mortality may occur decades after ionizing radiation exposure. With increased use of proton and carbon ion radiotherapy and concerns about space radiation exposures to astronauts on future long-duration exploration-type missions, the long-term effects and risks of low-dose charged particle irradiation on the CV system must be better appreciated. Here we report on the long-term effects of whole-body proton (¹H; 0.5 Gy, 1 GeV) and iron ion (⁵⁶Fe; 0.15 Gy, 1GeV/nucleon) irradiation with and without an acute myocardial ischemia (AMI) event in mice. We show that cardiac function of proton-irradiated mice initially improves at 1 month but declines by 10 months post-irradiation. In AMI-induced mice, prior proton irradiation improved cardiac function restoration and enhanced cardiac remodeling. This was associated with increased pro-survival gene expression in cardiac tissues. In contrast, cardiac function was significantly declined in ⁵⁶Fe ion-irradiated mice at 1 and 3 months but recovered at 10 months. In addition, ⁵⁶Fe ion-irradiation led to poorer cardiac function and more adverse remodeling in AMI-induced mice, and was associated with decreased angiogenesis and pro-survival factors in cardiac tissues at any time point examined up to 10 months. This is the first study reporting CV effects following low dose proton and iron ion irradiation during normal aging and post-AMI. Understanding the biological effects of charged particle radiation qualities on the CV system is necessary both for the mitigation of space exploration CV risks and for understanding of long-term CV effects following charged particle radiotherapy.</p></div

ECHO, HEMO Measurements of Cardiac Functions and Cardiac Remodeling in IR + Aging + AMI Model.

<p>(<b>A</b>) Diagrammatic representation of the experimental design to evaluate the effect of acute, low-dose, whole body 50 cGy 1 GeV ¹H and 15 cGy 1 GeV/n ⁵⁶Fe IR in the hearts of 8–10 months old C57BL/6NT over 10 months in <b>Radiation + Aging + AMI</b>. IR-induced alterations in cardiac function were assessed by echocardiography (ECHO), hemodynamic (HEMO) and morphometric/histologic measurements and activation of signaling pathways by protein analyses. Acute myocardial infarct (AMI) was induced by ligation of the left anterior descending (LAD) coronary artery 1, 3 and 10 months post-IR, and mice were monitored over 28 days post-AMI. <i>ECHO analysis of cardiac function in the hearts of full-body ¹H-IR, ⁵⁶Fe-IR and non-IR control mice 1, 3 and 10 months post-IR in IR+Aging+AMI model for:</i> EF% 1 month (<b>B</b>), 3 months (<b>D</b>), 10 months (<b>F</b>), PWth (mm) 1 month (<b>C</b>), 3 months (<b>E</b>) and 10 months (<b>G</b>). Results in all graphs (<b>B–G</b>) are presented as mean ± SEM; <i>n</i> = 6–8 animals per time point/group. Non-IR control – solid green line, ¹H-IR - dashed blue line and ⁵⁶Fe-IR - dotted red line. <i>HEMO measurements and analysis of cardiac function in the hearts of full-body ¹H-IR, ⁵⁶Fe-IR and non-IR control mice 1, 3 and 10 months post-IR for:</i> (<b>H</b>) LV ESP (mmHg), (<b>I</b>) LV EDP (mmHg), (<b>J</b>) LV dP/dt_Max and dP/dt_Min (mmHg/sec). Results in all graphs (<b>H–J</b>) are presented as mean ± SEM; <i>n</i> = 6–8 animals per time point/group for non-IR control - solid black bars, ¹H-IR - solid grey bars and ⁵⁶Fe-IR - solid white bars. Statistical significance was assigned when <i>P</i><0.05. <i>Cardiac Remodeling 1, 3 and 10 months post-IR and 28 days after AMI:</i> Cardiac fibrosis was measured in the heart tissue post-AMI using Masson's Trichrome staining - blue is fibrosis and dotted line indicates the infarct scar size. Measurements represent midline length of the infarct when >50% of the LV was involved (mm) and every 3^rd section of the adjacent 8 µm size section were measured and infarct size was reconstructed as described before. Insets are representative images of ¹H-IR, ⁵⁶Fe-IR and non-IR control mice 1 month (<b>K</b>), 3 months (<b>L</b>) and 10 months (<b>M</b>) post-IR and 28 days after AMI. Graphic representation of the infarct size/scar (mm²) 1 month (<b>K</b>), 3 months (<b>L</b>) and 10 months (<b>M</b>) post-IR and 28 days after AMI. Results in all graphs are presented as mean ± SEM; <i>N</i> = 6–8 animals per time point/group for non-IR control - solid black bars, ¹H-IR - solid grey bars and ⁵⁶Fe-IR - solid white bars. Statistical significance was assigned when <i>P</i><0.05.</p