Social support and sport injury recovery : an overview of empirical findings and practical implications

Epidemiologically-based evidence has demonstrated that a substantial number of athletes and exercisers are injured each year, which can result in physical disability as well as other negative physical, social and psychological consequences. Accumulated research has indicated that the prevalence of sport and physical activity-related injuries varies based on gender, age group, type of sport, level of participation, and role on the team, among other considerations. Although physical causes are the primary contributors to injury, a considerable number of studies have suggested that psychological and social factors also have importance in injury prevention and rehabilitation. Among the psychosocial factors investigated, social support has emerged as a significant buffering and coping resource in the recovery process from athletic injuries. However, research has also indicated that sources of social support tend to be less frequently available to athletes during some stages of rehabilitation and do not necessarily meet the athletes' expectations and needs. Moreover, some studies have suggested that social support may have detrimental effects under certain circumstances. As such, coaches, athletic trainers and health care professionals should be aware of these complex forms of influence and develop and implement injury rehabilitation processes that are based on a holistic approach in order to promote the athletes' recovery and well-being.Los estudios epidemiológicos han demostrado que, cada año, un número considerable de atletas y de practicantes de actividad física sufre una lesión causante de discapacidad y de otras repercusiones negativas para el bienestar físico, psicológico y social. Además, las investigaciones actuales revelan que la prevalencia de las lesiones asociadas a los deportes varía según el género, la edad, el deporte, el nivel competitivo, la posición en el juego, entre otros. Aunque los factores físicos constituyen las principales causas de las lesiones más comunes, varios estudios han sugerido que los factores psicológicos y sociales también ejercen un efecto significativo en la prevención y rehabilitación de las lesiones deportivas. Entre los factores psicosociales estudiados, el apoyo o soporte social percibido por el propio deportista se ha destacado como un importante mecanismo para controlar el distrés emocional y afrontar mejor las dificultades inherentes al proceso de recuperación de las lesiones deportivas. Sin embargo, la investigación también indica que las fuentes de apoyo social tienden a no satisfacer las expectativas y necesidades de soporte social de los atletas, siendo insuficientes en determinadas fases de la rehabilitación. Igualmente, algunos estudios han sugerido que el apoyo social puede inducir efectos perjudiciales en determinadas circunstancias. Por lo tanto, los entrenadores y profesionales de la salud (médicos, fisioterapeutas, psicólogos, etc.) deben tener conocimiento de estos factores influyentes y implementar intervenciones desde un punto de vista más integral con el fin de promover la recuperación de los atletas y mejorar su bienestar.Os estudos epidemiológicos têm demonstrado que, cada ano, um número considerável de atletas e de praticantes de actividade física sofre uma lesão causadora de incapacidade e de outras repercussões negativas para o bem-estar físico, psicológico e social. Adicionalmente, as investigações actuais revelam que a prevalência de lesões associadas à prática desportiva varia segundo o género, idade, modalidade, nível competitivo, posição de jogo, entre outros. Embora os factores físicos constituam as principais causas das lesões mais comuns, vários estudos têm sugerido que os factores psicológicos e sociais também exercem um efeito significativo na prevenção e reabilitação das lesões desportivas. Entre os factores psicossociais estudados, o apoio ou suporte social percebido pelo próprio desportista tem-se destacado como um importante mecanismo para controlar o distress emocional e enfrentar melhor as dificuldades inerentes ao processo de recuperação das lesões desportivas. Contudo, a investigação indica também que as fontes de suporte social tendem a não satisfazer as expectativas e necessidades de suporte social dos atletas, sendo insuficientes em determinadas fases da reabilitação. De igual modo, alguns estudos têm sugerido que o suporte social pode induzir efeitos prejudiciais em determinadas circunstâncias. Portanto, os treinadores e os profissionais da saúde (médicos, fisioterapeutas, psicólogos, etc.) devem ter conhecimento destes influentes factores e implementar intervenções desde um ponto de vista mais global, visando promover a recuperação dos atletas e a melhoria do seu bem-estar

Are physiological, physical, wellness and load decisive markers of starting players? A case study from a professional male soccer team

The study aim was to compare physiological, physical, accumulated wellness and load markers within a European professional soccer team between starters and non-starters. Ten starters (age: 25.1 ± 2.2 years; experience: 7.3 ± 2.3 years) and eight non starters (age: 26.1 ± 4.6; years’ experience: 8.3 ± 4.1 years) participated in the study. The study was conducted across 20 weeks where 75 training sessions and 15 matches occurred. Wellness (fatigue, quality of sleep, muscle soreness, stress and mood) and load (rating of perceived exertion (RPE), accelerations, decelerations, high-speed running and sprinting) measures were observed. Physiological evaluation consisted of a 1200 m maximum effort shuttle test while physical capacity assessment included isokinetic strength, jump ability and balance tests. Isokinetic tests were used to assess peak torque of both legs (extension and flexion at 60◦ /s and 180◦ /s), single squat jump and single hop jump were utilized to assess jump ability and Y-balance tests were employed to examine balance. Starters presented significantly higher values for peak torque extension of the non-dominant leg compared to non-starters (p = 0.038, effect size (ES) = 0.996), while non-starters showed higher values for both Y-balance postero-medial and postero lateral (p = 0.009, ES = −1.309 and p = 0.021, ES = −1.133, respectively). Accumulated duration and RPE were lower for non-starters than starters (p ≤ 0.001, ES = 1.268, and p = 0.022, ES = 1.123, respectively). The physiological and physical tests conducted in this study do not seem to determine the starting status of players, considering that only one test revealed significantly higher values for starters. Despite the lower training and match duration for non-starters, this showed that it is possible to accumulate identical load while managing wellness regardless of starting status.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Are male soccer players accumulating sufficient load across varying microcycle structures? Examining the load, wellness and training/match ratios of a professional team

Professional soccer involves varying numbers of training sessions and matches each week, which can influence load distribution. Understanding the exact distribution may allow appropriate load periodisation and planning for players. Thus, this study aimed to (i) compare accumulated load and wellness between weeks with different numbers of training sessions and (ii) compare training/match ratio (TMr) of external and internal load between weeks with different numbers of training sessions. Ten players with a minimum of 45 minutes of weekly match-play were analysed over 16 weeks. The microcycle structures consisted of three (3dW), four (4dW), five (5dW) and six (6dW) training sessions plus match-day per week. The following measures were used for analysis: duration, fatigue, quality of sleep, muscle soreness, stress, mood, rating of perceived exertion (RPE), session-RPE (s-RPE), high-speed running distance (HSR), sprint distance (SPD), number of accelerations (ACC) and decelerations (DEC). Accumulated wellness/load were calculated by adding all training and match sessions, while TMr was calculated by dividing accumulated load by match data. The main results showed that accumulated wellness and load were significantly different, with moderate to very large effect sizes, except regarding mood, duration, s-RPE, SPD during 5dW vs. 6dW and s-RPE, HSR, SPD, ACC and DEC during 3dW vs. 4dW (all p > 0.05). Moreover, 6dW was significantly higher than 4dW regarding TMr of duration (p < 0.05, moderate effect size), RPE, HSR and SPD (all p < 0.05 with very large effect sizes) and for 3dW of HSR and ACC (p < 0.05 with very large effect sizes). This study showed that 5dW and 6dW had higher training measures than 3dW or 4dW. Additionally, higher wellness was presented in the microcycles with higher training frequencies. These findings suggest that physical load and wellness were not adjusted according to the number of training sessions within a microcycle.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Energetic and biomechanical contributions for longitudinal performance in master swimmers

The current study aimed to verify the changes in performance, physiological and biomechanical variables throughout a season in master swimmers. Methods: Twenty-three master swimmers (34.9 ± 7.4 years) were assessed three times during a season (December: M1, March: M2, June: M3), in indoor 25 m swimming pools. An incremental 5 × 200 m test was used to evaluate the speed at 4 mmol·L−1 of blood lactate concentration (sLT), maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), peak blood lactate ([La-]peak) after the test, stroke frequency (SF), stroke length (SL), stroke index (SI) and propelling efficiency (ηp). The performance was assessed in the 200 m front crawl during competition. Results: Swimming performance improved between M1, M2 (2%, p = 0.03), and M3 (4%, p < 0.001). Both sLT and VO2max increased throughout the season (4% and 18%, p < 0.001, respectively) but not [La-]peak. While SF decreased 5%, SL, SI and ηp increased 5%, 7%, and 6% (p < 0.001) from M1 to M3. Conclusions: Master swimmers improved significantly in their 200 m front crawl performance over a season, with decreased SF, and increased SL, ηp and SI. Despite the improvement in energetic variables, the change in performance seemed to be more dependent on technical than energetic factorsThis work is supported by national funding through the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P., under project UIDB/04045/2020info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Marcadores hematológicos e bioquímicos após um torneio de Jiu-Jitsu Brasileiro em atletas de elite

Os objetivos deste estudo foram avaliar o efeito de um esforço de competição de Jiu-Jitsu Brasileiro (JJB) sobre marcadores bioquímicos e hematológicos, e investigar se esse efeito diferia em função do nível de prestação. Foram estudados 30 lutadores, divididos em: grupo de Elite ou EL (n= 20), composto por atletas com colocações entre 1º e 3º lugar no Campeonato Mundial de JJB Brasileiro; e grupo Não Elite ou NEL (n= 10), composto por praticantes não competidores. Simulou-se um campeonato de JJB com as mesmas regras do Campeonato do Mundo. Cada atleta realizou cinco lutas de até 10 minutos cada e com um intervalo de cinco minutos entre as mesmas. A ordem e a composição das lutas foram realizadas através de sorteio e entre atletas do mesmo grupo. Antes e após a competição, foram feitas recolhas de sangue para obtenção dos marcadores bioquímicos e hematológicos. A competição de JJB induziu aumentos significativos nos atletas de ambos os grupos nas seguintes variáveis: glicose, ácido úrico, ureia, creatinina, proteínas totais, albumina, creatinaquinase, leucócitos, neutrófilos, bastões e monócitos. No plaquetócrito, houve aumento significativo apenas no grupo NEL. As proteínas totais e o volume plaquetário médio apresentaram valores mais elevados nos atletas EL; enquanto os eosinófilos e monócitos foram mais elevados nos atletas NEL. Apenas na creatinina sérica se verificou um efeito significativo na interação momento x grupo, verificando-se valores mais elevados no grupo EL, tanto no pré como no pós-competição

Are wearable heart rate measurements accurate to estimate aerobic energy cost during low-intensity resistance exercise?

The aim of the present study was to assess the accuracy of heart rate to estimate energy cost during eight resistance exercises performed at low intensities: half squat, 45° inclined leg press, leg extension, horizontal bench press, 45° inclined bench press, lat pull down, triceps extension and biceps curl. 56 males (27.5 ± 4.9 years, 1.78 ± 0.06 m height, 78.67 ± 10.7 kg body mass and 11.4 ± 4.1% estimated body fat) were randomly divided into four groups of 14 subjects each. Two exercises were randomly assigned to each group and subjects performed four bouts of 4-min constant-intensity at each assigned exercise: 12%, 16%, 20% and 24% 1-RM. Exercise and intensity order were random. Each subject performed no more than 2 bouts in the same testing session. A minimum recovery of 24h was kept between sessions. During testing VO2 was measured with Cosmed K4b2 and heart rate was measured with Polar V800 monitor. Energy cost was calculated from mean VO2 during the last 30-s of each bout by using the energy equivalent 1 ml O2 = 5 calorie. Linear regressions with heart rate as predictor and energy cost as dependent variable were build using mean data from all subjects. Robustness of the regression lines was given by the scatter around the regression line (Sy.x) and Bland-Altman plots confirmed the agreement between measured and estimated energy costs. Significance level was set at p≤0.05. The regressions between heart rate and energy cost in the eight exercises were significant (p<0.01) and robustness was: half squat (Sy.x = 0,48 kcal·min-1), 45° inclined leg press (Sy.x = 0,54 kcal·min-1), leg extension (Sy.x = 0,59 kcal·min-1), horizontal bench press (Sy.x = 0,47 kcal·min-1), 45° inclined bench press (Sy.x = 0,54 kcal·min-1), lat pull down (Sy.x = 0,28 kcal·min-1), triceps extension (Sy.x = 0,08 kcal·min-1) and biceps curl (Sy.x = 0,13 kcal·min-1). We conclude that during low-intensity resistance exercises it is possible to estimate aerobic energy cost by wearable heart rate monitors with errors below 10% in healthy young trained males.This research was supported by Norte Portugal Regional Operational Programme (NORTE 2020), through Portugal 2020 and the European Regional Development Fund, NanoSTIMA, NORTE-01-0145- FEDER-000016 to VMR. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Bioimpedance Phase Angle and Muscle Strength Performance in Young Male Volleyball Athletes

Volleyball performance depends partially on lower limb strength. The phase angle (PhA) is a marker of functional muscle mass and a surrogate measure of athletic muscle performance. This study aimed to verify the correlation between PhA (bioimpedance) and lower limb muscle strength in young volleyball athletes. The sample included 38 young male volleyball athletes (Age: 16.7±1.3 years; Weight: 73.7±9.7 kg; Height: 179.3±6.9 cm). We performed a cross-sectional observational study and evaluated the volleyball athletes for vertical jump tests (Counter-Movement Jump: CMJ and Squat Jump: SJ) and whole-body bioimpedance. The Pearson test showed positive and moderate significant correlations between the PhA, CMJ, and SJ (r=0.550 and r=0.559, respectively). Our findings demonstrated that assessing the PhA through bioimpedance provides relevant measures of muscle strength and power in young volleyball athletes

The relationship between wellness and training and match load in professional male soccer players

This study aimed to (i) analyse the within-microcycle variations in professional soccer players and (ii) analyse the relationships between wellness and training and match load demands during the following day (MD+1) and the day before match-play (MD-1). Thirteen professional soccer players (24.85±3.13 years) were monitored daily over 16 weeks for wellness, training and match-play intensity. The daily wellness measures included fatigue, quality of sleep, muscle soreness, mood and stress using a 1-5 scale. Internal intensity was subjectively measured daily using the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and the multiplication of RPE by session duration (s-RPE). External intensity was quantified using high-speed running, sprinting, and acceleration and deceleration metrics. Data was analysed from each training session before (i.e., MD-5) or after the match (i.e., MD+1). Repeated measures ANOVA or Friedman ANOVA was used to analyse the aims (i), where Spearman correlation was applied to analyse the relationships between the aims (ii) and (iii) between sleep quality and training intensity. The main results for aim (i) showed that MD+1 presented the lowest values for wellness variables (p < 0.05). At the same time, MD-1 presented the lowest internal and external load values (for all variables), with MD presenting the highest values (p < 0.05). Regarding aim (ii), the main result showed significant large negative correlations between fatigue and s-RPE (r = -0.593; p = 0.033). Considering aim (iii), significant small to very large negative correlations were found for sleep quality, fatigue and muscle soreness with all internal and external variables (p < 0.05). Lastly, the main results for aim (iv) showed large negative correlations for fatigue and session duration; fatigue and s-RPE; muscle soreness and session duration; muscle soreness and s-RPE; and muscle soreness and decelerations (p < 0.05, for all). The main conclusions were that MD had an influence on wellness and internal and external training intensity. Notably, MD-1 and MD+1 were most affected. In this regard, a tendency for higher internal and external intensity on MD was associated with lower wellness measures of sleep quality, muscle soreness, and fatigue on MD+1

Are non-starters accumulating enough load compared with starters? Examining load, wellness, and training/match ratios of a European professional soccer team

Background: The aims of the study were to: (i) compare accumulated load and wellness between starters and non-starters of a European professional soccer team; (ii) analyze the relationships between wellness and load measures and; (iii) compare training/match ratio (TMr) of external and internal load between starters and non-starters. Methods: Ten players were considered starters while seven were classified as non-starters over a 16-week period in which six training sessions and match day (MD) were considered in each weekly micro-cycle. The following measures were used: wellness (fatigue, quality of sleep, muscle soreness, stress, and mood); load (rated of perceived exertion (RPE), session-RPE (s-RPE), high-speed running (HSR), sprinting, accelerations (ACC) and decelerations (DEC)). Accumulated wellness/load were calculated by summing all training and match sessions, while TMr was calculated by dividing accumulated training load by match data for all load measures and each player. Mann–Whitney U test was used for wellness variables, while independent T-test was used for the remaining variables to compare groups. Moreover, relationships among variables were explored using the Spearman’s Rho correlation coefficient. Results: The main results showed that non-starters presented higher significant values for fatigue (p < 0.019; g = 0.24) and lower significant values for duration (p < 0.006; ES = 1.81) and s-RPE (p < 0.001; ES = 2.69) when compared to starters. Moreover, positive and very large correlation was found between quality of sleep and RPE, while negative and very large correlation were found between stress and deceleration, and mood and deceleration (all, p < 0.05). Finally, non-starters presented higher values in all TMr than starters, namely, RPE (p = 0.001; g = 1.96), s-RPE (p = 0.002; g = 1.77), HSR (p = 0.001; g = 2.02), sprinting (p = 0.002; g = 4.23), accelerations (p = 0.001; g = 2.72), decelerations (p < 0.001; g = 3.44), and duration (p = 0.003; g = 2.27). Conclusions: In conclusion, this study showed that non-starters produced higher TMr in all examined variables despite the lower match and training durations when compared with starters, suggesting that physical load was adjusted appropriately. Additionally, higher RPE was associated with improved sleep while higher number of decelerations were associated with decreased wellness, namely, stress and mood for non-starters