Effectiveness of adults’ targeted interventions in stopping bullying

Teachers and other school personnel have the responsibility to intervene quickly when a case of bullying comes to their attention. However, previous research has mainly focused on evaluating whole-school prevention programs, while targeted interventions on specific bullying cases have received little attention. In this thesis, I study effectiveness of teachers’ targeted interventions in stopping bullying. In Study I, the focus is on intervention failures. It revealed that interventions failed in one out of four cases. Rather than being associated with differences between schools, intervention failures were mostly explained by characteristics of the bullying cases and the students involved. For instance, frequency and duration of the victimization were positively, and the perpetrators’ own antibullying attitudes and their perception of teachers’ and parents’ antibullying attitudes were negatively associated with the intervention failure. In Study II and Study III, the effectiveness of different intervention approaches was examined. Study II showed that targeted interventions were more effective when the schools used program-recommended approaches (confronting and non-confronting) rather than their own adaptation. Confronting and non-confronting approaches were equally effective. Further, the interventions were more effective when follow-up discussions were organized systematically after each intervention. Study III examined the effectiveness of different approaches using an experimental design and demonstrated that on average, the condemning and empathy-raising messages were equally effective at encouraging youth to stop bullying others, and combining both messages was the most effective. The relative effectiveness of the messages was found to depend on students’ level of cognitive empathy: At low levels of cognitive empathy, the condemning message was the least effective, whereas among those with high cognitive empathy, all messages were equally likely to lead to intention to stop bullying. To conclude, this thesis increased our understanding of the challenges faced by school personnel when intervening in bullying and effectiveness of different approaches. To make intervening more effective, it is important to consider the characteristics of the bullying cases, to adhere to evidence-based methods, and organize follow-ups systematically after each intervention. The optimal strategy to stop bullying seems to be combining the confronting and non-confronting approaches.Kiusaamiseen puuttumisen tehokkuus Opettajilla ja muulla koulun henkilökunnalla on velvollisuus puuttua kiusaamiseen. Tutkimuksissa on yleensä keskitytty arvioimaan kiusaamisen ennaltaehkäisyyn tarkoitettujen ohjelmien tehokkuutta, kun taas spesifeihin kiusaamistapauksiin puuttumisen tehokkuudesta on kertynyt vasta vähän tietoa. Tässä väitöskirjassa tutkin kiusaamiseen puuttumisen tehokkuutta. Osatutkimus I keskittyy tilanteisiin, joissa kiusaaminen jatkui aikuisten puuttumisesta huolimatta. Tulosten mukaan puuttuminen epäonnistui neljäsosassa tapauksista. Koulujen välisten erojen sijaan epäonnistuminen selittyi pääasiassa kiusaamistapausten välisillä eroilla. Mitä useammin kiusaamista tapahtui ja mitä pidempään se oli jatkunut, sitä vaikeampaa siihen oli puuttua. Kiusaavan oppilaan omat kiusaamisen vastaiset asenteet sekä hänen käsityksensä siitä, että opettajan ja vanhempien asenteet ovat kiusaamisen vastaisia, lisäsivät puuttumisen onnistumisen todennäköisyyttä. Osatutkimuksissa II ja III tutkittiin erilaisten kiusaamiseen puuttumisen mallien tehokkuutta. Osa-tutkimuksen II mukaan kiusaaminen loppui todennäköisemmin silloin, kun koulussa oli käytetty näyttöön perustuvia toimintatapoja, kuin jos oli käytetty koulun omaa sovellusta. Erityisen tehokasta puuttuminen oli, kun tilannetta seurattiin systemaattisesti seurantatapaamisissa aina puuttumisen jälkeen. Osatutkimuksessa III hyödynnettiin kokeellista tutkimusasetelmaa, jossa opettaja puuttui videolla kiusaamistapaukseen eri tavoin ja oppilailta kysyttiin, kuinka todennäköisesti he lopettaisivat kiusaamisen. Keskimäärin tehokkain tapa oli sekä tuomita kiusaaminen, että yrittää herättää kiusaavassa oppilaassa empatiaa kiusattua kohtaan. Yksittäin käytettynä molemmat tavat olivat yhtä tehokkaita. Oppilaan kognitiivisen empatian määrä vaikutti viestien tehokkuuteen: kun kognitiivista empatiaa oli vähän, kiusaamisen tuomitseva viesti toimi heikoiten, mutta kun kognitiivista empatiaa oli paljon, kaikki viestit toimivat yhtä tehokkaasti. Väitöskirja lisää tietoa kiusaamiseen puuttumisen haasteista sekä puuttumisen mallien tehokkuudesta. Puuttumisen tehostamiseksi on tärkeää kiinnittää huomiota kiusaamistapausten yksilöllisiin piirteisiin. Kiusaamiseen tehoavat parhaiten näyttöön perustuvat toimintatavat, kiusaamisen loppuminen on tärkeä varmistaa seurantatapaamisella ja optimaalisin strategia puuttumiselle näyttää olevan kiusaamisen tuomitsemisen ja empatian herättämisen yhdistäminen

The role of look-backs in the processing of written sarcasm

Previous eye-tracking studies suggest that when resolving the meaning of sarcastic utterances in a text, readers often initiate fixations that return to the sarcastic utterance from subsequent parts of the text. We used a modified trailing mask paradigm to examine both the role of these look-back fixations in sarcasm comprehension and whether there are individual differences in how readers resolve sarcasm. Sixty-two adult participants read short paragraphs containing either a literal or a sarcastic utterance while their eye movements were recorded. The texts were presented using a modified trailing mask paradigm: sentences were initially masked with a string of x’s and were revealed to the reader one at a time. In the normal reading condition, sentences remained visible on the screen when the reader moved on to the next sentence; in the masked condition, the sentences were replaced with a mask. Individual differences in working memory capacity (WMC) and the processing of emotional information were also measured. The results showed that readers adjusted their reading behavior when a mask prevented them from re-examining the text content. Interestingly, the readers’ compensatory strategies depended on spatial WMC. Moreover, the results showed that the ability to process emotional information was related to less processing effort invested in resolving sarcasm. The present study suggests that look-backs are driven by a need to re-examine the text contents but that they are not necessary for the successful comprehension of sarcasm. The strategies used to resolve sarcasm are mediated by individual differences.</p

Different Approaches to Address Bullying in KiVa Schools: Adherence to Guidelines, Strategies Implemented, and Outcomes Obtained

We examined the extent to which school personnel implementing the KiVa® antibullying program in Finland during 2009–2015 systematically employed the program-recommended approaches (confronting or non-confronting), used one or the other depending on the bullying case (case-specific approach), or used their own adaptation when talking to perpetrators of bullying, and whether they organized follow-up meetings after such discussions. In addition to investigating adherence to program guidelines, we tested how effective these different approaches were in stopping bullying. Finally, we tested the contribution of follow-up meetings and the number of years KiVa had been implemented in a school to the effectiveness of the interventions, using reports from both school personnel and victimized students. The data were collected annually across 6 years via online questionnaires and included responses from 1221 primary and secondary schools. The school personnel were more likely to use the confronting approach than the non-confronting approach. Over time, rather than sticking to the two program-recommended approaches, they made adaptations (e.g., combining the two; using their own approach). Two-level regression analyses indicated that the discussions were equally effective, according to both personnel and victimized students, when the confronting, non-confronting, or a case-specific approach had been used. The discussions were less effective when the personnel used their own adaptation or could not specify the method used. Perceived effectiveness was higher in primary school and when follow-up meetings were organized systematically after each intervention, but unrelated to the number of years KiVa had been implemented. Over the past decades, growing awareness of the negative outcomes of school bullying (Reijntjes et al. <a title="Reijntjes, A., Kamphuis, J. H., Prinzie, P., & Telch, M. J. (2010). Peer victimization and internalizing problems in children: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34, 244–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.07.009 ." href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11121-020-01178-4#ref-CR29">2010) has in many countries led to normative regulation, such as schools being required to have a policy, or an action plan against bullying (Salmivalli 2018). School personnel are thus faced with a demand to do something to address bullying. At the same time, numerous antibullying programs have been developed and evaluated in different parts of the world (Gaffney et al. <a title="Gaffney, H., Ttofi, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. (2019). Evaluating the effectiveness of school-bullying prevention programs: An updated meta-analytical review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 45, 111–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.07.001 ." href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11121-020-01178-4#ref-CR11">2019). Such programs often combine preventive actions (such as student lessons or improved supervision) with targeted interventions (i.e., procedures for intervening in actual bullying cases, such as discussions with the students involved). Evaluation studies have, however, mainly estimated the effects of whole programs (without distinguishing prevention from intervention components), and the few studies that have compared the effectiveness of different approaches in targeted interventions only assessed short-term effectiveness on the basis of a single student informant (Garandeau et al. <a title="Garandeau, C. F., Poskiparta, E., & Salmivalli, C. (2014). Tackling acute cases of school bullying in the KiVa anti-bullying program: A comparison of two approaches. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42, 981–991. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9861-1 ." href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11121-020-01178-4#ref-CR12">2014, <a title="Garandeau, C. F., Vartio, A., Poskiparta, E., & Salmivalli, C. (2016). School bullies’ intention to change behavior following teacher interventions: Effects of empathy arousal, condemning of bullying, and blaming of the perpetrator. Prevention Science, 17, 1034–1043. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-016-0712-x ." href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11121-020-01178-4#ref-CR13">2016). Consequently, we know little about the relative effectiveness of different approaches used when a case of bullying has already occurred, and even less about how school personnel implement guidelines provided to address such cases. The present study investigates the extent to which school personnel implementing the KiVa® antibullying program (Kärnä et al. <a title="Kärnä, A., Voeten, M., Little, T. D., Poskiparta, E., Alanen, E., & Salmivalli, C. (2011a). Going to scale: A nonrandomized nationwide trial of the KiVa antibullying program for grades 1–9. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79, 796–805. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029174 ." href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11121-020-01178-4#ref-CR16">2011a) in Finland employ the program-recommended approaches (confronting vs. non-confronting) when discussing with bullying perpetrators, how this changes over a period of 6 years, and how effective the chosen approaches (whether program-recommended or something else) are perceived to be by the school personnel and by the students who have been victimized.</div

Intention to Stop Bullying following a Condemning, Empathy-Raising, or Combined Message from a Teacher - Do Students' Empathy and Callous-Unemotional Traits Matter?

Knowing which intervention strategies work best and for which student is essential for teachers when they intervene in cases of bullying. The effects of teachers' (1) condemning, (2) empathy-raising, and (3) combined (including elements of both) messages on students' intention to stop bullying were tested in a between-subject experimental design. A total of 277 seventh grade students (M-age = 12.93, SD = 0.49; 47% female) were asked to imagine they had bullied a peer and were invited to a discussion with a teacher. They saw a video vignette with one of the above messages. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that students' intention to stop bullying was highest among those who saw the combined message. Callous-unemotional traits were negatively, and affective and cognitive empathy positively associated with intention to stop bullying. Students' level of cognitive empathy moderated the relative effect of the condemning message on intention to stop bullying. At low levels of cognitive empathy, the condemning message was the least effective, whereas among those with high cognitive empathy, all messages were equally likely to lead to intention to stop bullying. Together, the findings suggest that for educators intervening in bullying among adolescents, an approach involving both condemning and empathy-raising messages is the 'best bet', most likely to lead to intention to stop bullying

Takaisinpalaamisen merkitys kirjoitetun sarkasmin ymmärtämisessä

Tutkin pro gradu -tutkielmassani silmänliikemenetelmän avulla takaisinpalaamisen merkitystä sarkasmin ymmärtämisessä. Sarkasmi on ironian alalaji, purevaa ivaa. Aiempien tutkimustulosten perusteella on epäselvää, miten sarkasmin ymmärtäminen tapahtuu. Aiemmat tutkimukset osoittavat, että kirjaimellisiin lausahduksiin verrattuna sarkastisiin lausahduksiin palataan enemmän takaisin. Lisääntyneen takaisinpalaamisen on oletettu liittyvän sarkastisen tulkinnan muodostamiseen. On kuitenkin epäselvää, onko takaisinpalaaminen todella välttämätöntä sarkastisen tulkinnan muodostamiselle. Tutkimukseen osallistui 61 koehenkilöä, jotka olivat iältään 18–49-vuotiaita ja äidinkieleltään suomenkielisiä. Osallistujat lukivat 42 tekstiä, joista 14 oli kirjaimellisia, 14 sarkastisia ja 14 täytetekstiä. Puolet osallistujan lukemista teksteistä esitettiin siten, että uudelleenlukeminen oli estetty edelliset virkkeet peittävällä maskilla. Puolet teksteissä esitettiin normaalisti edellisten virkkeiden pysyessä näkyvillä. Sarkasmin ymmärtämistä mitattiin teksteihin liittyvillä muisti- ja tulkintakysymyksillä. Tutkimuksessa tarkasteltiin sitä, oliko tekstityypillä (kirjaimellinen vs. sarkastinen) ja uudelleenlukemisen estämisellä (maski vs. ei-maskia) vaikutusta kohdevirkkeeseen tehtävään takaisinpalaamiseen. Tutkimuskysymyksenä oli, heikentääkö uudelleenlukemisen estäminen sarkasmin ymmärtämistä. Saatujen tulosten mukaan sarkastisten tekstien kohdalla takaisinpaluu kohdevirkkeeseen ja muihin tekstin osiin lisääntyi verrattuna kirjaimellisiin teksteihin, riippumatta siitä, oliko uudelleenlukemista estetty vai ei. Uudelleenlukemisen estäminen ei heikentänyt sarkasmin ymmärtämistä. Muistikysymyksissä onnistuttiin yhtä hyvin sekä kirjaimellisten että sarkastisten tekstien kohdalla riippumatta siitä, oliko uudelleenlukemista estetty vai ei. Takaisinpaluu näyttää liittyvän spatiaalisen informaation, eli tiedon sijainnin tekstissä, päivittämiseen tai sarkastisen kohdevirkkeiden palauttamiseen muistista takaisin mieleen. Tämän tutkimuksen tulosten perusteella näyttää siis siltä, että takaisinpalaaminen on merkityksellistä kirjoitetun sarkasmin ymmärtämisessä.siirretty Doriast