[The precursor of amyloid peptide in Alzheimer disease : a protein with multiple functions].

Cellular metabolism of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) has been widely studied, but the function of the protein remains elusive. APP knock out mice do not show any phenotype, due to in vivo compensation by APLP genes, encoding proteins similar to APP. In order to study the neuronal metabolism of APP, human APP has been expressed in rat cortical neurons in culture. Following differentiation in culture, rat cortical neurons are organized into networks of connected cells, which show neuronal activity in the form of spontaneous and synchronous calcium oscillations. Expression of human APP in these neuronal networks inhibits calcium oscillations, while downregulation of endogenous APP expression increases the frequency and decreases the amplitude of oscillations. Therefore, APP controls neuronal calcium homeostasis and excitability. In the same experimental model, APP is also able to control the neuronal synthesis of cholesterol. Finally, the APP carboxy terminal domain is involved in the epigenetic control of gene expression. Modulation of neuronal expression of APP allows to identify several important functions of the precursor of the amyloid peptide found in senile plaques of Alzheimer disease

The amyloid peptide precursor in Alzheimer's disease

beta A4, an hydrophobic peptide containing from 39 to 43 amino acids, is the major constituent of the amyloid core of characteristic lesions of Alzheimer's disease (AD) known as senile plaques. By cDNA cloning, it was demonstrated that beta A4 is derived from a much larger precursor named the amyloid peptide precursor or APP The isolation of cDNA clones and the characterization of their nucleotide sequence has shown that several APP proteins containing from 365 to 770 amino acids are produced by alternative splicing of a single primary transcript. The major APP isoforms contain a large extracellular N-terminal domain and a short intracellular C-terminal end. The beta A4 sequence itself is contained for 15 amino acids in the transmembrane domain while 28 amino acids are protruding into the extracellular space. The gene encoding APP is located on human chromosome 21, which is involved in the autosomal dominant inheritance of some early onset of familial AD (FAD). In a few families, mutations of the APP gene have been described. Although they can explain less than 3% of all FAD cases, these mutations clearly demonstrate that APP metabolism is involved in the development of AD. The overexpression of APP in several cultured cells allowed to characterize two catabolic pathways of the protein. A non amyloidogenic pathway precludes formation of beta A4, because APP is cleaved by an alpha-secretase within the beta A4 sequence, leading to the extracellular release of a C-terminal truncated protein. The amyloidogenic pathway produces soluble extracellular beta A4, by cleavage of APP by beta- and gamma-secretases after endocytosis of the transmembrane protein. Although soluble beta A4 is non toxic, it becomes very neurotoxic as soon as it makes fibrils. It is therefore essential to characterize the different factors which favor the organization of beta A4 into fibrils. They have to be considered as risk factors for AD, as well as targets for new therapies. Another therapeutic approach could consist in developing molecules able to inhibit beta A4 production by stimulating the non amyloidogenic pathway of APP

Maladie d'Alzheimer: aspects cellulaires et moléculaires.

A conclusive diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) can be made only by correlating clinical findings and neuropathological studies of post-mortem tissues. Two leading neuropathological changes correlate with the diagnosis of AD: first, the neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) which accumulate in neuronal perikarya and are made of paired helical filaments (PHFs) containing the microtubule-associated protein tau; second, extracellular amyloid deposits in the form of diffuse or neuritic senile plaques which contain the amyloid peptide. In AD, NFTs can be easily visualized using antibodies recognizing the microtubule associated protein tau and are composed of bundles of PHFs. In the autopsy-derived AD brain, tau is hyperphosphorylated and more than 30 phosphorylation sites have been identified in PHF-tau proteins. The formation of NFTs is thought to be associated with a collapse of the microtubule network, disturbances of axoplasmic transports, synapse loss, neuritic atrophy, and neuronal death. Senile plaques are extracellular lesions which have been shown by electron micro-scopic studies to contain amyloid fibrils. Fibrils were isolated and a small 4.2 kDa poly-peptide was purified from this material. The amyloid peptide found in amyloid deposits of AD is designated Abeta. Since the Abeta peptide is small and unlikely to be a primary translational product, it was predicted to arise from a larger precursor. In 1987, this amyloid peptide precursor (APP) was characterised from the analysis of a full-length cDNA encoding a primary translational product of 695 residues. This protein is synthetized by neurons as a 100-kDa glycosylated transmembrane protein with a single membrane spanning domain. The use of cellular models has clearly identified two catabolic pathways for APP. A non amyloidogenic pathway, in which APP is cleaved by beta-secretase within the sequence of the amyloid peptide. This cleavage precludes the formation of the full-length Abeta found in the amyloid core of senile plaques. A second catabolic pathway of APP leads to the production of Abeta from its precursor. In this amyloidogenic pathway, APP is cleaved by beta-secretase at the N-terminus of Abeta. The C-terminal fragment of APP thus formed is in turn cleaved by beta-secretase to release the full-length amyloid peptide. In primary cultures of neurons over-expressing APP, the production of intraneuronal Abeta induces neuronal apoptosis. This neurotoxicity, which is not observed in epithelial cells, seems to be related to the formation of intraneuronal aggregates of Abeta 1-42. In AD, the specific inhibition of beta- or beta-secretase activities would decrease the production of Abeta from its precursor, in such a way that its relative concentration could be low enough to avoid the formation of aggregates. Molecules which can interact with Abeta in order to inhibit its aggregation are also being developed. Immunization against Abeta has also been tested in both animal models and clinical studies. Although these clinical studies had to be interrupted due to the development of T-lymphocyte meningoencephalitis in some patients, very preliminary results indicate that antibodies against Abeta slow cognitive decline in AD, and generate areas of neocortex devoid of senile plaques

The amyloid peptide and its precursor in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease, the most frequent cause of dementia, is characterized by the formation in the brain of neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques. Neurofibrillary tangles are composed of bundles of paired helical filaments containing the microtubule-associated protein tau. Iu autopsy-derived brain samples from patients with Alzheimer's disease, tau is hyperphosphorylated and constitutes a promising disease marker, Senile plaques contain a small amyloid peptide derived from the amyloid precursor protein. Mutations of the amyloid precursor protein gene have been identified in rare cases of familial Alzheimer's disease, suggesting a causal role for amyloid peptide deposition in the disease. However, Alzheimer's disease has been demonstrated to be characterized by an important genetic heterogeneity. The identification of pathogenic DNA mutations, different from those of the amyloid precursor protein gene, will reveal whether the corresponding genes are involved in either an increased production of the amyloid peptide or a decrease of its removal, or in the fibrillogenic properties of the peptide, which seem to be related to its toxicity. Several mammalian cells are able to produce the amyloid peptide from its precursor. Understanding the cellular mechanisms that determine how cleavages occur in cells could help to identify new strategies for modulating amyloid peptide production. In attempts to produce animal models of Alzheimer's disease, investigators have used transgenic strategies. To date, these efforts have not been very successful. However, the expression in transgenic mice of both mutated amyloid peptide precursor and amyloid associated proteins should prove useful for examining the importance of putative etiological factors, and for testing novel therapies including anti-amyloidogenic strategies

Processing of amyloid precursor protein and amyloid Peptide neurotoxicity.

Alzheimer's disease is characterized by the presence of two types of lesions in brain: neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques. Intraneuronal neurofibrillary tangles are made of paired helical filaments containing hyperphosphorylated microtubule associated protein tau. Extracellular senile plaques contain a core of beta-amyloid peptide (Abeta), which is produced by cleavage of the Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP). Among the two catabolic pathways of APP, the amyloidogenic pathway producing Abeta peptides was intensively studied in different cellular models expressing human APP. Differences in APP processing and in toxicity resulting from Abeta accumulation can be observed from one cell type to another. In particular, primary cultures of neurons process APP differently compared with other cultured cells including neuronal cell lines. Neurons accumulate intraneuronal Abeta, which is neurotoxic, and in these cells, APP can be phosphorylated at specific residues. Recent studies suggest that APP phosphorylation can play an important role in its amyloidogenic processing. In addition, protein kinases that phosphorylate APP are also able to phosphorylate the neuronal protein tau. Biochemical analysis of these two proteins in primary cultures of neurons show that phosphorylation of both APP and tau can be a factor linking the two characteristic lesions of Alzheimer's disease

Alpha 1-tubulin mRNA level is increased during neurite outgrowth of NG 108-15 cells but not during neurite outgrowth inhibition by CNS myelin

alpha 1-tubulin is an isotype of alpha-tubulin, and its mRNA is expressed in the rodent nervous system. A high level of alpha 1-tubulin mRNA in neurones is associated with axonal outgrowth during development as well as with axonal regeneration after axotomy in adult animals. We quantitated alpha 1-tubulin mRNA levels in motor neurone-like NG 108-15 cells using Northern blots in order to determine whether the expression of this neurite outgrowth-associated gene is regulated in NG 108-15 cells during neurite extension and during inhibition of this process by CNS myelin. Here we report that during the acute phase of neurite outgrowth, alpha 1-tubulin mRNA level increases in NG 108-15, a maximal induction of 1.7-fold over the initial level occurring 24 h after neurite outgrowth onset. By contrast, when these cells are plated on CNS myelin alpha 1-tubulin mRNA levels show no such increase. These findings indicate that an increase of the alpha 1-tubulin mRNA level is associated with neurite outgrowth of NG 108-15 cells. More interestingly, this study also demonstrates that the inhibition of neurite outgrowth by CNS myelin may affect the expression of a gene encoding a protein involved in neurite extension