Considerations of feed demand and supply for the evolution and expansion of beef cattle farming in Sabah, East Malaysia : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Agronomy, Massey University, Institute of Agriculture and Environment, College of Sciences, Palmerston North, New Zealand

To develop a plan for the expansion and evolution of the beef industry in Sabah, it was decided to apply relevant farming information and technology from New Zealand pastoral systems. Based on expert recommendation in New Zealand, metabolic energy budgeting (MEB) was chosen as the vehicle for technology transfer, rather than a direct translocation of elements of farm practice between these two countries of vastly different climate. In Phase 1 of the study, farm system evolution in New Zealand over the last two and half decades was evaluated by modelling past systems from historic records for the author to gain experience of New Zealand pastoral systems and to develop MEB spreadsheet tools to identify principles of system improvement; and in Phase 2, the tools developed in New Zealand were applied for evaluation of opportunities for farm system improvement in Sabah. In Phase 1, an evaluation was carried out of cumulative changes on New Zealand lower North Island sheep and beef cattle farms from 1980–81/1985–86 to 2010–2011. Herbage harvested on the farms studied, as determined by MEB, was 7.43 t DM ha–1 yr–1 in 1980–81 and only 5.76 t DM ha–1 yr–1 in 2010– 11. Also herbage supply (based on GROW model calculations using weather data) had decreased from 9.64 t DM ha–1 yr–1 to 8.70 t DM ha–1 yr–1 (partly due to an apparent climate change effect). However, with the evolution of farm system configurations over the past quarter century focusing on efficiency gain, the feed conversion efficiency (based on national data) improved from 25 kg feed consumed per kg lamb weaned in 1980–81/1985–86 to 19 kg feed consumed per kg lamb weaned in 2010/2011 and the corresponding increases in meat production from 1980–81/1985–86 to 2010/2011 were a rise from 137 kg to 147 kg total beef and lamb carcass per ha per year. Two major drivers of the higher meat production were an increase in lambing percentage, and an increase in weight of lambs and bulls at sale. In Phase 2, a first study in Sabah using the MEB tools developed in New Zealand involved three cut-and-carry feedlots (Brahman, Bali and Droughtmaster cattle), and utilised 5,981 monthly liveweight records of 485 cattle farmed in this system for the period 2008–2013. A second study in Sabah involved five grazing units (Brahman cow-calf, Bali cow-calf, Droughtmaster cow-calf, and Heifer and Brahman bull Units), and included 30,166 monthly liveweight records for 1353 cattle farmed in this system during the same period. A third study involved three oil-palm-integrated cattle (OPIC) farms (two in 9 yr old plantations and one in a 12 yr old plantation) and 600–700 cattle farmed in this system in 2013 and 2014. In this study, animal growth rates were assumed based on records from the nearest government farm with animals of similar breed. For the three systems, herbage-cutting experiments were carried out in August–October 2014 to estimate herbage growth and nutritive value (metabolisable energy and protein contents), and soil samples collected to describe the soil nutrient content. In the cut-and-carry feedlot and grazing cattle farming systems, the herbage harvested, as indicated by the modelling in these systems, was lower (3.74–7.16 t DM ha–1 yr–1 herbage eaten) than the potential yield of the herbage extrapolated from the cutting experiments (6.9–21.3 t DM ha–1 yr–1). In the OPIC farming system, the modelled herbage harvested in 9 yr old plantations was 2.0–2.4 t DM ha–1 yr–1 and that of 12 yr old plantation was 1.4–1.7 t DM ha–1 yr–1. These values are higher than values for potential herbage supply (0.4–0.8 t DM ha–1 yr–1) reported in literature for plantations of similar ages. In all three systems, herbage nutritive value was low (7.0–8.9 MJ ME kg DM–1; 9%–14% CP), calving percentage was low (33%–47%); soil was acidic and soil nutrient content was low; while invasion of non-sown species (native grass) was high. The best average feed conversion efficiencies (FCE) for these systems were 21.3 kg DM kg LWG–1 (cut-and-carry feedlot), 40.2 kg DM kg LWG–1 (grazing), and 32.2 kg DM kg LWG–1 (OPIC). FCE was found to improve with application of N fertiliser and was not necessarily high when feed consumption was intensified (or at high system feed demand). A key statistic defining the stock-configuration in an efficient system for the cut-and-carry feedlot cattle farming system was 994 kg animal LWT ha–1, or a comparative stocking rate (CSR) of 96 kg animal liveweight per tonne feed consumed. For the grazing cattle farming system, the observed optimum was 506 kg animal LWT ha–1, or a CSR of 94 kg LWT t DM–1. The identification of an optimal CSR for the OPIC farming system was limited (by the data supplied by the farms), but the available data indicated that for 9OP1 the CSR was 89 kg LWT t DM–1, or approximately 231 kg animal LWT ha–1. From the series of studies in Sabah, it is concluded that the future focus of the beef industry to expand and improve the productivity should be first to adjust the farm system configuration especially the stocking rate for optimal FCE under the present forage supply regime (and for that purpose a-CSR type of statistics would be useful to determine the appropriate stocking rate), and only then, to develop a pasture husbandry and fertiliser recommendations aimed at improving herbage dry matter harvested towards a target of 14–20 t DM ha–1 yr–1, with ME of 9–10 MJ kg DM–1, and CP of 14%–16% at harvesting or grazing. The herbage production target for the OPIC farming system, however, cannot be determined until the time trajectory of the decreasing system herbage productivity with decreasing oil palm age is fully understood. The use of supplement in the three systems is optional, but if it is used, it should be targeted tactically to reduce liveweight loss and enhance cow reproductive performance

Stand structure and species composition of forest in Timbah Virgin Jungle Reserve, Sabah

The stand structure and tree composition of Timbah Virgin Jungle Reserve (VGR Timbah) were studied. Three locations in the VJR were selected, and at each location, 1-ha study plot was established. The plots were sub-divided into 10×10 m2 sub-plots, and in each sub-plot, stem diameters of trees > 5 cm diameter-at-breast- height (DBH) were measured. The trees were identified, and their relative density and relative basal area per hectare were calculated. Little difference was found in tree density and basal area per ha between the plots. From the plots, 2,369 trees > 5 cm DBH were enumerated. Total basal area of the trees was 119.5 m2. Stem diameter class distribution of the trees was found to follow the inverse J-shape pattern. Many of the trees had 5 – 60 cm DBH. Total densities of the trees > 5 cm and > 10 cm DBH were 790 and 474 trees ha–1, respectively and total basal areas per ha were 39.8 and 38.4 m2 ha–1, respectively. In this study, 47 tree families, 118 genera and 117 species of trees were identified. Many of the trees were Dipterocarpaceae (20% of the total stems). The most abundant species was Dryobalanops beccarii (4.3% of the total stems; 34 trees ha–1). Pioneer and disturbed forest trees were found at a very low density. The results suggest that VJR Timbah's soils are infertile, since D. beccarii, the most abundant species in the plots, prefers leached whitish or yellowish sandy soils. The results also suggest that the VJR had experienced a less significant logging encroachment or invasion of disturbed forest trees. The results imply that VJR Timbah still maintains its undisturbed forest stand structure and tree composition, although it is relatively small in size and surrounded by a large matrix of heavily logged forest

Diversity of gingers at Serudong, Sabah, Malaysia

The species richness and abundance of the Zingiberaceae (hereafter gingers) were studied in five study plots in Serudong and in one study plot in an adjacent area. The study plots were in undisturbed upland kerangas forest (mossy kerangas forest), one in an undisturbed lower montane-kerangas forest, one in disturbed upland mixed dipterocarp forest, and three in upland mixed dipterocarp-kerangas forest (disturbed, partially disturbed and undisturbed, respectively). Thirty-nine species were documented from the general area; eight of which were found outside the plots. Eightyone percents of the species were recorded from the disturbed forest plots. None of the species were recorded from the undisturbed upland kerangas and lower montanekerangas forest plots. Species richness averaged 11 species per hectare. The index of diversity of gingers for the study area was estimated to be 2.0 (Shannon diversity index, H’) and it was highest in the disturbed upland mixed dipterocarp forest plot. At the scale of this study, the diversity of gingers in Serudong is found to be lower than that of many other forest reserves in Sabah. The most novel collection was Geostachys, a genus that was documented in Sabah only recently. This finding was the second for a species of this genus in Sabah

In vitro antimicrobial activity of Cynodon dactylon (L.) pers. (bermudas) against selected pathogens

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. is a type of perennial grass that possesses great medicinal values. In this study, the antimicrobial activity of the plant crude extract from seven different solvents (acetone, chloroform, diethyl ether, ethanol, ethyl acetate, methanol, and n-pentane) was investigated against some pathogens (Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Streptococcus pneumonia) using disc diffusion method and thin-layer chromatographic (TLC) bioassay for plant-SPE extracts against Aspergillus niger. Crude extraction showed that ethanolic extraction produced highest yield (7.065 %) followed by methanolic (5.420 %) and chloroform (3.550 %) extraction. The lowest yield was obtained from n-pentane extraction (0.500 %). The antimicrobial study revealed broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity from ethanol (7.0–10.0 ± 0.0–1.0 mm) and ethyl acetate (7.0–12.0 ± 0.0–1.0 mm) extracts against all of the bacterial pathogens. Both methanol and acetone extracts showed activity to B. cereus (8.0 ± 0.0 mm) and B. subtilis (7.0 ± 0.0 mm), while chloroform extract showed activity to B. subtilis (7.0 ± 0.0 mm) and S.pyogenes (8.3 ± 0.6 mm), respectively. Diethyl ether extraction showed activity only to S. pyogenes (7.3 ± 0.6 mm), while no activity was observed from n-pentane extraction. Great antimicrobial activity were observed for both ethyl acetate and ethanol SPE-based extracts (SBE) with size of inhibition ranging from 8.0 ± 0.0 mm to 15.7 ± 0.6 mm for ethyl acetate SBE and 8.0 ± 0.0 mm to 13.0 ± 0.0 mm for ethanol SBE. No significant antimicrobial activity was observed from thin-layer chromatographic bioassay against A. niger

Overview on leafy (Pak Choy) vegetable industry and vertical soilless culture application for Pak Choy production in Malaysia

The agriculture industry plays a significant role in the well-being of Malaysia’s economy. It provides jobs for more than 1566 thousand people and contributes 7.1% to the gross domestic product (GDP). The vegetable industry, however, is lagging behind other agricultural industries, such as oil palm, rubber, and tea. The demand for vegetables in Malaysia increased from 1.58 million metric tonnes (MT) in 2010 to 2.4 million MT in 2020, but the production was only 0.1 million MT in 2010, 1.01 million MT in 2015, and 1.7 million MT in 2020. The trade balance deficit in 2021 stood at Ringgit Malaysia (RM) 3.37 billion. The vegetable industry is under pressure from rising population, shortage of resources, and post-COVID-19 pandemic impacts. Vertical farming (VF) of vegetables is widely promoted worldwide, including Malaysia, to increase production. In VF, the vegetables are produced in environmentally controlled multi-storey buildings with different vegetables at different levels, and at any level, the vegetables are cultivated using vertical farming systems (VFSs). In that way, the production per unit area is said to be maximal. However, is Malaysia’s leafy (Pak Choy) vegetable industry agronomically ready to embark on VF and VFS? There is a concern about business failure associated with promoting VF and VFS without sufficient knowledge and skills in agronomy about VF and VFS based on the local scenarios. Hence, the present paper aims to review the leafy vegetable industry, specifically Pak Choy production in Malaysia, to assess its readiness to apply VF and VFS to better the direction of future research projects. Keywords used for the search of relevant information in Science Direct, World Wide Science, Google Scholar, Google, and online newspapers were Malaysia plus vertical farming, hydroponic systems, column hydroponic system, agriculture sector, agriculture 4.0, precision agriculture, soilless culture, leafy vegetable industry, and Pak Choy production. The articles and reports obtained were reviewed. Based on the review, the leafy industry in Malaysia, specifically the Pak Choy production, is not yet agronomically ready to venture into VF and VFS, although VF and VFS have gained attention. The agronomic information about VF and VFS based on the local scenarios is still lacking. Local farmers have little guidance for operating VF and VFS. It is understood that VF is an expensive venture and will be relatively unknown to many farmers, but even the agronomic information related to VFS, which is just about the system used in VF, is seldom published. Of the many designs of VFSs in Malaysia, the Column Hydroponic System (CHS) has a markedly higher vegetable yield per unit area. Thus, more research on CHS is needed, and its agronomic and technical information should be published for the local vegetable farmers to use to mitigate the supply shortage and the high foreign exchange of leafy vegetables in Malaysia

Phylogenetic and Morphological Characteristics Reveal Cryptic Speciation in Stingless Bee, Tetragonula laeviceps s.l. Smith 1857 (Hymenoptera; Meliponinae)

Tetragonula laeviceps sensu lato (s.l.) Smith 1857 has the most complicated nomenclatural history among the Tetragonula genera. The objective of this study was to investigate whether T. laeviceps s.l. individuals with worker bees are grouped in the same or nearly the same morphological characteristics and have similar COI haplotype cluster groups. A total of 147 worker bees of T. laeviceps s.l. were collected from six sampling sites in Sabah (RDC, Tuaran, Kota Marudu, Putatan, Kinarut and Faculty of Sustainable Agriculture (FSA)), but only 36 were selected for further studies. These specimens were first classified according to the most obvious morphological characteristics, i.e., hind tibia color, hind basitarsus color and body size. Group identification was based on morphological characteristics important for distinguishing the four groups within T. laeviceps s.l. The four groups of T. laeviceps s.l. had significantly different body trait measurements for the TL (total length), HW (head width), HL (head length), CEL (compound eye length), CEW (compound eye width), FWLT (forewing length, including tegula), FWW (forewing width), FWL (forewing length), ML (mesoscutum length), MW (mesoscutum width), SW (mesoscutellum width), SL (mesoscutellum length), HTL = (hind tibia length), HTW (hind tibia width), HBL (hind basitarsus length) and HBW (hind basitarsus width) (p < 0.001). Body color included HC (head color), CC (clypeus color), ASC (antennae scape color), CFPP (Clypeus and frons plumose pubescence), HTC (hind tibia color), BSC (basitarsus color), SP (leg setae pubescence), SP (Thorax mesoscutellum pubescence), SPL (thorax mesoscutellum pubescence length) and TC (thorax color) (p < 0.05). The most distinctive features of the morphological and morphometric characteristics measured by PCA and LDA biplot that distinguish Group 1 (TL6-1, TL6-2 and TL6-3) from the other groups were the yellowish-brown ASC and the dark brown TC. Group 2 (haplotypes TL2-1, TL2-2 and TL2-3 and TL4-1, TL4-2 and TL4-3) had a dark brown ASC and a black TC, while Group 3 (haplotypes TL11-1, TL11-2 and TL11-3) had a blackish-brown ASC, a black TC and the largest TL, FWW and FWL. As for phylogenetic relationships, 12 out of 36 haplotypes showed clear separation with good bootstrap values (97–100%). The rest of the haplotypes did not show clear differentiation between subclades that belonged together, regardless of their morphology and morphometric characteristics. This suggests that the combination of DNA barcoding for species identification and phylogenetic analysis, as well as traditional methods based on morphological grouping by body size and body color, can be reliably used to determine intraspecific variations within T. laeviceps s.l

Bacterial membrane disruption in Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli by Cynodon dactylon extract

Cynodon dactylon is a type of perennial grass that possesses great medicinal values. It has been reported to possess great antibacterial activity against many Gram positive and negative bacteria. It is believed that most antibacterial compounds show great antibacterial mechanism through membrane toxicity effect. Electron microscope (EM) is a powerful tool in observatory analysis which offers capability to observe extremely small sample or structure up to micron size. In present study the effect of C. dactylon extract on Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli cellular membrane was investigated using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). SEM observation revealed the disruption of bacterial membrane and caused complete lyse in B. subtilis and E. coli and S. aureus after treated with C. dactylon SPE extract which led to bacterial cell death

Effects of Fertilizer Application and Successive Harvesting on Clipping Yield, Phytochemical Contents and Antioxidant Activity of Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of fertilizer application and successive harvesting on phytochemical contents and antioxidant activities of Cynodon dactylon, a medicinal Bermuda grass in Sabah (Malaysia). Three fertilizers of two nitrogen concentrations were used in the experiment. The grass was harvested successively three times at five-weeks interval. Grass treated with 25 kg N/ha/month from the first harvest was found to have the highest clipping yield. Successive harvesting decreased the dry matter production of the grass irrespective of N concentration applied. Total saponin and alkaloid contents of the grass were increased by a combination treatment of fertilizer type ´ rate ´ harvesting; total flavonoid content was increased by fertilizer type ´ harvesting treatments; however, total phenolic content was not affected by any of the treatment or combination of the treatments. Both of the antioxidant assays (DPPH and FRAP) indicated that antioxidant activity of the grass was increased by fertilizer rate ´ harvesting treatments. There was a significant correlation found between total phenolic and flavonoid contents and antioxidant activities, suggesting that these two secondary metabolites may contribute to the antioxidant property of the grass. Overall, the obtained data indicated that the described treatments could be used to manipulate the production and accumulation of bioactive compounds of C. dactylon

Effects of Fertilizer Application and Successive Harvesting on Clipping Yield, Phytochemical Contents and Antioxidant Activity of Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of fertilizer application and successive harvesting on phytochemical contents and antioxidant activities of Cynodon dactylon, a medicinal Bermuda grass in Sabah (Malaysia). Three fertilizers of two nitrogen concentrations were used in the experiment. The grass was harvested successively three times at five-weeks interval. Grass treated with 25 kg N/ha/month from the first harvest was found to have the highest clipping yield. Successive harvesting decreased the dry matter production of the grass irrespective of N concentration applied. Total saponin and alkaloid contents of the grass were increased by a combination treatment of fertilizer type ´ rate ´ harvesting; total flavonoid content was increased by fertilizer type ´ harvesting treatments; however, total phenolic content was not affected by any of the treatment or combination of the treatments. Both of the antioxidant assays (DPPH and FRAP) indicated that antioxidant activity of the grass was increased by fertilizer rate ´ harvesting treatments. There was a significant correlation found between total phenolic and flavonoid contents and antioxidant activities, suggesting that these two secondary metabolites may contribute to the antioxidant property of the grass. Overall, the obtained data indicated that the described treatments could be used to manipulate the production and accumulation of bioactive compounds of C. dactylon