Innate immunity against HIV: a priority target for HIV prevention research

This review summarizes recent advances and current gaps in understanding of innate immunity to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, and identifies key scientific priorities to enable application of this knowledge to the development of novel prevention strategies (vaccines and microbicides). It builds on productive discussion and new data arising out of a workshop on innate immunity against HIV held at the European Commission in Brussels, together with recent observations from the literature

Twenty-three unsolved problems in hydrology (UPH) – a community perspective

This paper is the outcome of a community initiative to identify major unsolved scientific problems in hydrology motivated by a need for stronger harmonisation of research efforts. The procedure involved a public consultation through on-line media, followed by two workshops through which a large number of potential science questions were collated, prioritised, and synthesised. In spite of the diversity of the participants (230 scientists in total), the process revealed much about community priorities and the state of our science: a preference for continuity in research questions rather than radical departures or redirections from past and current work. Questions remain focussed on process-based understanding of hydrological variability and causality at all space and time scales. Increased attention to environmental change drives a new emphasis on understanding how change propagates across interfaces within the hydrological system and across disciplinary boundaries. In particular, the expansion of the human footprint raises a new set of questions related to human interactions with nature and water cycle feedbacks in the context of complex water management problems. We hope that this reflection and synthesis of the 23 unsolved problems in hydrology will help guide research efforts for some years to come

The hellenisation of the Syro-Levant: a critical analysis of the diffusion of mortuary practices

© 2003 Jana BouletThis study investigates one instance of the cultural process of diffusion, more specifically, `hellenisation,' occasioned by the spread of Greco-Macedonian (material) culture in the Syro-Levant after Alexander's conquest. The empirical dimension of the diffusion process is analysed by applying it to the material remains of burial practices in Syria and the Levant. In order to determine instances of Hellenistic diffusion, the study compares the various burial methods in that area with those in other contemporary `Greco-Macedonian' sites. In turn, so as to assess the influence of the traditions of the local Syro-Palestinian population on the burial traditions of the Greco-Macedonian colonists, an analysis of the earlier Achaemenid/Persian burials has been undertaken, providing an indication of the level and extent of revolutionary and/or lasting changes in one aspect of cultural practices brought about by the influence of the region's new inhabitants. The first chapter creates a conceptual framework, which develops a program for the further investigation of diffusion and how to understand it. The framework includes aspects of diffusion theory itself, of colonisation and centre-periphery relationships; it examines the reciprocal influences between the colonial situation and the diffusion of (material) culture. The broad issue of diffusion is thus conceived of as a reciprocal process, locating the study in an examination of Hellenistic diffusion in the Syro-Levantine region, specifically through an analysis and comparison of mortuary customs. Chapter Two explains the logic of the method used to apply the process of diffusion to the spatio/temporal context, including a discussion of the technicalities of mortuary analysis and the sampling procedures used in the comparative analysis. The Third Chapter investigates the Achaemenid period in conjunction with a broad overview of the establishment and evolution of the Seleucid Empire and relates some of the current debates about the nature of Seleucid histories and policies. Chapter Four summarises and compares the results of an overview of selected variables gleaned from excavation reports on the various cemetery sites. The final chapter concludes by suggesting a variety of possible explanations for the differences and similarities encountered and leads to a general conclusion that hellenisation did occur, but unevenly across the sites. The study's tentative findings confirm that `Hellenistic purity' should never be assumed — or, indeed, be expected to be a characteristic of material (and by extension, of other cultural) remainders of the diffusion process of hellenisation. As in most processes of diffusion, existing cultural practices are never entirely obliterated; rather, a hybrid culture emerges, with traces of both cultures. It can be said, though, that the Greek influence has been more pronounced in some areas as compared to others, where continuity with previous cultural practices appeared more prevalent

Risk assessment for side-effects of neonicotinoids against bumblebees with and without impairing foraging behavior

Bombus terrestris bumblebees are important pollinators of wild flowers, and in modern agriculture they are used to guarantee pollination of vegetables and fruits. In the field it is likely that worker bees are exposed to pesticides during foraging. To date, several tests exist to assess lethal and sublethal side-effects of pesticides on bee survival, growth/development and reproduction. Within the context of ecotoxicology and insect physiology, we report the development of a new bioassay to assess the impact of sublethal concentrations on the bumblebee foraging behavior under laboratory conditions. In brief, the experimental setup of this behavior test consists of two artificial nests connected with a tube of about 20 cm and use of queenless micro-colonies of 5 workers. In one nest the worker bees constructed brood, and in the other food (sugar and pollen) was provided. Before exposure, the worker bees were allowed a training to forage for untreated food; afterwards this was replaced by treated food. Using this setup we investigated the effects of sublethal concentrations of the neonicotinoid insecticide imidacloprid, known to negatively affect the foraging behavior of bees. For comparison within the family of neonicotinoid insecticides, we also tested different concentrations of two other neonicotinoids: thiamethoxam and thiacloprid, in the laboratory with the new bioassay. Finally to evaluate the new bioassay, we also tested sublethal concentrations of imidacloprid in the greenhouse with use of queenright colonies of B. terrestris, and here worker bees needed to forage/fly for food that was placed at a distance of 3 m from their hives. In general, the experiments showed that concentrations that may be considered safe for bumblebees can have a negative influence on their foraging behavior. Therefore it is recommended that behavior tests should be included in risk assessment tests for highly toxic pesticides because impairment of the foraging behavior can result in a decreased pollination, lower reproduction and finally in colony mortality due to a lack of food