Training methods for facial image comparison: a literature review

This literature review was commissioned to explore the psychological literature relating to facial image comparison with a particular emphasis on whether individuals can be trained to improve performance on this task. Surprisingly few studies have addressed this question directly. As a consequence, this review has been extended to cover training of face recognition and training of different kinds of perceptual comparisons where we are of the opinion that the methodologies or findings of such studies are informative. The majority of studies of face processing have examined face recognition, which relies heavily on memory. This may be memory for a face that was learned recently (e.g. minutes or hours previously) or for a face learned longer ago, perhaps after many exposures (e.g. friends, family members, celebrities). Successful face recognition, irrespective of the type of face, relies on the ability to retrieve the to-berecognised face from long-term memory. This memory is then compared to the physically present image to reach a recognition decision. In contrast, in face matching task two physical representations of a face (live, photographs, movies) are compared and so long-term memory is not involved. Because the comparison is between two present stimuli rather than between a present stimulus and a memory, one might expect that face matching, even if not an easy task, would be easier to do and easier to learn than face recognition. In support of this, there is evidence that judgment tasks where a presented stimulus must be judged by a remembered standard are generally more cognitively demanding than judgments that require comparing two presented stimuli Davies & Parasuraman, 1982; Parasuraman & Davies, 1977; Warm and Dember, 1998). Is there enough overlap between face recognition and matching that it is useful to look at the literature recognition? No study has directly compared face recognition and face matching, so we turn to research in which people decided whether two non-face stimuli were the same or different. In these studies, accuracy of comparison is not always better when the comparator is present than when it is remembered. Further, all perceptual factors that were found to affect comparisons of simultaneously presented objects also affected comparisons of successively presented objects in qualitatively the same way. Those studies involved judgments about colour (Newhall, Burnham & Clark, 1957; Romero, Hita & Del Barco, 1986), and shape (Larsen, McIlhagga & Bundesen, 1999; Lawson, Bülthoff & Dumbell, 2003; Quinlan, 1995). Although one must be cautious in generalising from studies of object processing to studies of face processing (see, e.g., section comparing face processing to object processing), from these kinds of studies there is no evidence to suggest that there are qualitative differences in the perceptual aspects of how recognition and matching are done. As a result, this review will include studies of face recognition skill as well as face matching skill. The distinction between face recognition involving memory and face matching not involving memory is clouded in many recognition studies which require observers to decide which of many presented faces matches a remembered face (e.g., eyewitness studies). And of course there are other forensic face-matching tasks that will require comparison to both presented and remembered comparators (e.g., deciding whether any person in a video showing a crowd is the target person). For this reason, too, we choose to include studies of face recognition as well as face matching in our revie

The properties of aqueous solutions of the phenanthrene sulphonic acids: a contribution to the study of colloidal electrolytes

1. The conductivities, densities and viscosities at at 18°C. and 25°C. of aqueous solutions of the following acids have been determined over a wide range of concentration:- p-toluene sulphonic acid, phenanthrene-2- and -3-sulphonic acids, 9-chloroand 9-bromo-phenanthrene-3-sulphonic acids.2. The conductivity data indicate that: (a) In sufficiently dilute solutions all the acids are present mainly as simple ions, with a small proportion of ion-pairs of the Bjerrum type. (b) The mobility of the phenanthrene sulphonate ion is considerably greater than that of a paraffin-chain sulphonate ion containing the same number of atoms. (c) p-toluene sulphonic acid behaves throughout the given concentration range as a simple strong electrolyte whose ions associate to some extent to form ion-pairs, (d) The phenanthrene sulphonic acids under consideration are colloidal electrolytes, their anions aggregating to form micelles to an extent dependent upon the concentration, the temperature, and the chemical constitution of the acid. (e) The tendency to form micelles in dilute solution increases in the order:- unsubstituted 3-acid < unsubstituted 2-acid < chloro-acid < bromo-acid. (f) Phenanthren sulphonate ions show less tendency to form micelles than similar paraffin-chain ions with the same number of carbon atoms. (g) No minimum occurs in the conductivity curve for clear (isotropic) solutions of the halogenated phenanthrene sulphonic acids3. The viscosity curves for dilute solutions of the phenanthrene sulphonic acids undergo inflection at concentrations in the neighbourhood of those at which micelle-formation becomes prominent, as indicated by the conductivity data. It is suggested that the observed enhancement of viscosity is due to an increase in the Coulomb attractive forces resulting from the ion-aggregation.4. The viscosity data show that:- (a) Concentrated isotropic solutions of the halogenated phenanthrene sulphonic acids are very much more viscous than corresponding solutions of the unsubstituted 3-acid. (b) Despite their high viscosity, there is no evidence of "structural viscosity" in concentrated isotropic solutions of the halogenated phenanthrene sulphonic acids, (c) Concentrated isotropic solutions of the chloro-phenanthrene sulphonic acid are more viscous than corresponding solutions ' of the bromo-acid.5. The observation of Sandqvist that the region of anisotropic behaviour commences at a lower concentration in the case of the chloro-phenanthrene sulphonic acid than in that of the bromine derivative has been confirmed.6. It is suggested that- the high viscosity of concentrated isotropic solutions of the halogenated phenanthrene sulphonic acids is due to the presence of aggregates which take the form of ultramicroscopic liquid crystals. These differ from the micelles in dilute solutions in that they include water molecules.7. Sandqvlst's observation that the addition of hydrochloric acid to solutions of the halogenated phenanthrene sulphonic acids produces a remarkable increase in viscosity has been confirmed, the effect being greater for the chloro-acid. It Is found that the mixed solutions possess "structural viscosity".8. The density curves for solutions of the phenanthrene sulphonlc acids show no breaks such as observed with paraffin-chain colloidal electrolytes, and which therefore appear to be characteristic of these compounds

The semantics of psychospace

Traditionally, in the landscape profession, landscape analysis has been concerned with the physical aspects of place. Properties like shape, amount, use, colour and content have been surveyed, identified and classed in their various combinations to describe ' place character '. With few exceptions, ( Appleton 1998 ), the psychological aspects of place as criteria for classification have been largely ignored. One of the reasons for this, has been the argument that such data are' subjective' and personal, when what is required is, ' objective', verifiable and subject to 'constancy'. Another equally valid objection has been the difficulty in defining and identifying the psychological properties of place.The proposed method of analysing places by their psychological properties depends on people being able to verbally describe their feelings and states of mind. To define the survey parameters, these personal , emotional and mental properties have been identified and arranged in spectrums. By selecting the appropriate terms to describe their feelings in place, psychological profiles can be prepared, describing person -place relationships. With many such profiles, linked to personal details, like age, activity, sex and culture, factor analysis allows statistical examinations to be made of these person -place relationships. These reveal consistent patterns, relating particular combinations of feelings to particular combinations of perceivable place properties.Language is the medium of analysis and a linguistic examination of the data allows its classification into different types of place property. Those which are tangible, nominals and nouns, like apples, beds and chairs, and those which are intangible and descriptors, like abnormality, banality and chaos. Linguistics also offers, through concepts like antonymy, the ability to express opposites or contrasts in design terms, like, alien -friendly, bold -weak, chaotic- ordered.Certain combinations of emotions and perceivable, intangible place properties indicate places of particular significance. These are defined as archetypes. Thus, Arcadia is emotionally peaceful, restful and tranquil, and perceivably fertile, productive and beautiful. Battlefield is tense, shocking, stressful and perceivably brutal, chaotic and dramatic.CG Jung, (1968) asserted that anthropomorphic archetypes exist in the 'collective unconscious' of society and that this innate knowledge prepares the mind for future encounters. His archetypes included concepts like Mother and Father, Superman and Hero. By extension, it is postulated that places are also archetypal.To relate people to places objectively, the concept of 'objective relativity' is evoked ( G H Mead. 1932), allowing personal properties like awe, beauty and calmness to be logically attributed to place, relative to particular people.The main concept on which the thesis is based, is 'Psychospace', a linguistic model of the total psychological experience of place. New concepts are created to describe further people - place relationships. Pratties are property feelings of people attributed to place and Percies are properties of place perceived by some people and not others, and therefore 'subjective', like order, chaos and formality.Also included in 'subjective' judgements are those of assessment. Procons are personal properties, like quality and value, good, bad and satisfactory, but also objectively relative.Methods are proposed for the analysis of places and people and the identification of concepts which are employed in the processes of design. Examples are shown and discussed of how the formulated principles work in practice

Multidimensional Data Sets: Traversing Sound Synthesis, Sound Sculpture, and Scored Composition

This article documents some of the conceptual developments of some various approaches to using multidimensional data sets as a means of propagating sound, manipulating and sculpting sound, and generating compositional scores. This is not only achieved through a methodology that is reminiscent of some of the systematic matrix procedures employed by composer Peter Maxwell Davies, but also through a generative signal path method conventionally termed Wave Terrain Synthesis. Both methodologies follow in essence the same kind of paradigm - the notion of extracting information through a process of traversing multidimensional topography. In this article we look at four documented examples. The first example is concerned with the organic morphology of modulation synthesis. The second example documents a dynamical Wave Terrain Synthesis model that responds and adapts in realtime to live audio input. The third example addresses the use of Wave Terrain Synthesis as a method of controlling another signal processing technique - in this case the independent spatial distribution of 1024 different spectral bands over a multichannel speaker array. The fourth example reflects on the use of matrices in some of the systematic compositional processes of Peter Maxwell Davies, and briefly shows how pitch, rhythm, and articulation matrices can be extended into higher-dimensional structures, and proposes how gesture can be used to create realtime generative scores. The underlying intent here is to find an effective and unified methodology for simultaneously controlling the complex parameter sets of synthesis, spatialisation, and scored composition in live realtime laptop performance

Exegetical perspectives of Pauline contextualisation of theological concepts with selected judicial imagery in Romans and its contextual application

This investigation is based on a hypothesis in consequent of the following questions: How did the biblical narrators, evangelists, as well as correspondents, such as Paul, communicate or explain theological concepts or the εὐαγγέλιον to their urban, highly politicised, culturally diversified and Roman Law orientated audiences, readers or addressees? How may the word of God be explained to modern communities, urban societies who themselves too are highly politicised, live in a culturally diversified country and whose daily life is controlled by the laws of the country in which they live? In seeking to provide answers to these problematic questions, biblical scholars, past and present, have developed various theories and methodologies. Most of these theories and methodologies, though based on exegetical framework, have to this day not provided an adequate or satisfactory answer. There is in addition no consensus among past and present biblical scholars concerning this problem. Each of these theories or methods is limited. None of them is universal or a panacea (Keegan 1985:7). Since the 1970s new theories and methods in the form of rhetorical analysis following in the footsteps of Graeco-Roman rhetorical criticism have emerged and flourished (Du Toit 1992:465,468,469). These were subsequently followed by further developments, also based on the rethorical criticism approach, though with a different emphasis. Within the past 20 years or so, a new way of analysing the text of the Scripture (primarily the New Testament) has been developed. Recently Vorster (1990:107) stated that an analysis of the New Testament letters can no longer stop at a structural analysis, but has to take cognizance of aspects of conversational analysis and rhetoric; that an interactional model rather than a structural approach should be adopted in the analysis of letters. Theoretically, this is a bibliological research problem because to this day no study has produced a theory or an approach that addresses this problem. This fact also endorses the novelty of this research, because there is no study to date that provides an adequate response or solution to the problem concerning Paul’s contextualisation of juridical imagery with theological concepts in order to explain such concepts to his addressees. The number of different theories and approaches are indicative of the fact that the solution to the problem is not in sight as yet. This problem, though valid, cannot be easily solved. However, as investigations in this field proceed researchers will come closer to a solution. The hypothesis, which is under discussion in this thesis is: that Paul contextualised theological concepts with juridical imagery, which were well – known to his addressees by using rhetorical and logical techniques in order to explain these concepts to them. That this approached may be adopted and applied in contemporary exegesis and homiletics. This research brings into prominence Pauline contextualisation of theological concepts with juridical imagery in Romans. Like most of the other approaches, this new approach has also been developed from methods first used in secular studies (Keegan 1985:2). However, it differs from its predecessors in the sense that it investigates how Paul contextualised theological concepts in Romans by utilizing juridical imagery with which his addressees were knowledgable, in order to connect with his addressees’ frame of reference and explain such theological concepts to them.Prof. Jan A. du Ran

New digital interactions with John Cage\u27s Variations IV, V and VI

To celebrate the centenary of John Cage’s birth in 1912, Western Australian new music ensemble Decibel undertook the realization of the American composer John Cage’s (1912 – 1992) complete Variations I – VIII. The works offer a unique insight into the development of Cage’s approach to composition practice, aleatoric approaches, spatial arrangements and the use of electronics. Entitled the “John Cage Complete Variations Project”, Decibel created a performance of the eight pieces in around an hour. The preparation and reading of the scores that make use of transparent sheets (Variations I, II, III, IV and VI) has been adapted using digital score creators and readers. This permits real time generation of measurements and graphics, as well as the assemblage of performance symbols, that can occur during the actual performance of the works. This paper examines the approach to the Variations whose instructions result in the employment or creation of maps: Variations IV (1963), V (1965) and VI (1966)

Digital adaptions of the scores for Cage Variations I, II and III

Western Australian new music ensemble Decibel have devised a software-based tool for creating realisations of the score for John Cage\u27s Variations I and II. In these works Cage had used multiple transparent plastic sheets with various forms of graphical notation, that were capable of independent positioning in respect to one another, to create specifications for the multiple unique instantiation of these works. The digital versions allow for real-time generation of the specifications of each work, quasi-infinite exploration of diverse realisations of the works and transcription of the data created using Cage\u27s methodologies into proportionally notated scrolling graphical scores