PREVALENCE OF FLUOROQUINOLONE RESISTANCE IN EUROPE

Since 1984, when the first fluoroquinolone, norfloxacin, was marketed in Europe, there has been a marked increase in the usage of this class of drugs. In order to evaluate the influence of this drug usage on the prevalence of resistance to fluoroquinolones in clinical isolates of the family Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcuss aureus, coagulase-negative staphylococci and Enterococcus faecalis we reviewed the susceptibility data from four collaborative surveys conducted between 1983 and 1990 by the Study Group ‘Bacterial Resistance’ of the Paul-Ehrlich-Society for Chemotherapy. All participating laboratories used the same standardized methods. Miminal inhibitory concentrations were determined by the broth microdilution method. More than 20,000 bacterial strains were tested. The results are presented for ciprofloxacin, which is regarded as the representative of the fluoroquinolones. Using greater than or equal to 4 mg/l as a breakpoint for resistance to ciprofloxacin, the prevalence of resistant strains of the family Enterobacteriaceae in Central Europe between 1983 and 1990 remained below 1%. In contrast, the resistance rates in P. aeruginosa were 0.7%, 1.0%, 3.8% and 7.0%, in S. aureus 0%, 0.5%, 6.6% and 6.8%, and in E. faecalis 2.2%, 0.7%, 4.9% and 7.7% in 1983, 1986, 1989 and 1990, respectively. The latest study carried out in cooperation with 78 laboratories from 12 European countries revealed great differences in the prevalence of resistance to fluoroquinolones from one species to another ranging from 0% with Proteus vulgaris and Salmonella spp. to 26.7% with Providencia stuartii. The highest rates of resistance were recorded for oxacillin-resistant strains of S. aureus (70.6%) and oxacillin-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci (51.2%). Resistance levels for individual species varied between countries, but they were consistently higher in Southern Europe than in Northwest and Central Europe. Resistance in S. aureus and E. faecalis was more prevalent in isolates from intensive care patients than in isolates from patients on normal wards. In addition, S. aureus isolates displayed a considerable difference in the resistance rates for blood (9.3%) and urine (34.4%)

Growth, economic structure, and residential distribution of a small city

Small city, Economic structure, Economic geography, Capital accumulation, Solow’s growth model, Uzawa’s two-sector growth model, Alonso’s urban model, Muth’s housing model, E13, O18,