A simultaneous generalization of independence and disjointness in boolean algebras

We give a definition of some classes of boolean algebras generalizing free boolean algebras; they satisfy a universal property that certain functions extend to homomorphisms. We give a combinatorial property of generating sets of these algebras, which we call n-independent. The properties of these classes (n-free and omega-free boolean algebras) are investigated. These include connections to hypergraph theory and cardinal invariants on these algebras. Related cardinal functions, $n$Ind, which is the supremum of the cardinalities of n-independent subsets; i_n, the minimum size of a maximal n-independent subset; and i_omega, the minimum size of an omega-independent subset, are introduced and investigated. The values of i_n and i_omega on P(omega)/fin are shown to be independent of ZFC.Comment: Sumbitted to Orde

Microchemistry in Africa A Reassessment

Microscale chemistry has been talked about and experimented with for many decades. Even the microscale chemistry deliberately designed for school-based practical activities has been around for more than 30 years. It is timely to reassess its scope and limitations, because many of the concerns that stirred interest originally are not diminishing but strengthening

The androgen receptor and signal-transduction pathways in hormone-refractory prostate cancer. Part 2: androgen-receptor cofactors and bypass pathways

Prostate cancer is the second leading cause of cancer related deaths in men from the western world. Treatment of prostate cancer has relied on androgen deprivation therapy for the past 50 years. Response rates are initially high (70-80%), however almost all patients develop androgen escape and subsequently die within 1-2 years. Unlike breast cancer, alternative approaches (chemotherapy and radiotherapy) do not increase survival time. The high rate of prostate cancer mortality is therefore strongly linked to both development of androgen escape and the lack of alternate therapies. AR mutations and amplifications can not explain all cases of androgen escape and post-translational modification of the AR has become an alternative theory. However recently it has been suggested that AR co-activators e.g. SRC-1 or pathways the bypass the AR (Ras/MAP kinase or PI3K/Akt) may stimulated prostate cancer progression independent of the AR. This review will focus on how AR coactivators may act to increase AR transactivation during sub-optimal DHT concentrations and also how signal transduction pathways may promote androgen escape via activation of transcription factors, e.g. AP-1, c-Myc and Myb, that induce cell proliferation or inhibit apoptosis

Generation of Entanglement Outside of the Light Cone

The Feynman propagator has nonzero values outside of the forward light cone. That does not allow messages to be transmitted faster than the speed of light, but it is shown here that it does allow entanglement and mutual information to be generated at space-like separated points. These effects can be interpreted as being due to the propagation of virtual photons outside of the light cone or as a transfer of pre-existing entanglement from the quantum vacuum. The differences between these two interpretations are discussed.Comment: 25 pages, 7 figures. Additional references and figur

Mitochondrial Function as a Potential Tool for Assessing Function, Quality and Adulteration in Medicinal Herbal Teas

Quality control has been a significant issue in herbal medicine since herbs became widely used to heal. Modern technologies have improved the methods of evaluating the quality of medicinal herbs but the methods of adulterating them have also grown in sophistication. In this paper we undertook a comprehensive literature search to identify the key analytical techniques used in the quality control of herbal medicine, reviewing their uses and limitations. We also present a new tool, based on mitochondrial profiling, that can be used to measure medicinal herbal quality. Besides being fundamental to the energy metabolism required for most cellular activities, mitochondria play a direct role in cellular signalling, apoptosis, stress responses, inflammation, cancer, ageing, and neurological function, mirroring some of the most common reasons people take herbal medicines. A fingerprint of the specific mitochondrial effects of medicinal herbs can be documented in order to assess their potential efficacy, detect adulterations that modulate these effects and determine the relative potency of batches. Furthermore, through this method it will be possible to assess whole herbs or complex formulas thus avoiding the issues inherent in identifying active ingredients which may be complex or unknown. Thus, while current analytical methods focus on determining the chemical quality of herbal medicines, including adulteration and contamination, mitochondrial functional analysis offers a new way of determining the quality of plant derived products that is more closely linked to the biological activity of a product and its potential clinical effectiveness

Bioelectric fields at the beginnings of life

The consensus on the origins of life is that it involved organization of prebiotic chemicals according to the underlying principles of thermodynamics to dissipate energy derived from photochemical and/or geochemical sources. Leading theories tend to be chemistry-centric, revolving around either metabolism or information-containing polymers first. However, experimental data also suggest that bioelectricity and quantum effects play an important role in biology, which might suggest that a further factor is required to explain how life began. Intriguingly, in the early part of 20th century, the concept of the “morphogenetic field” was proposed by Gurwitsch to explain how the shape of an organism was determined, while a role for quantum mechanics in biology was suggested by Bohr and Schrödinger, among others. This raises the question as to the potential of these phenomena, especially bioelectric fields, to have been involved in the origin of life. It points to the possibility that as bioelectricity is universally prevalent in biological systems today, it represents a more complex echo of an electromagnetic skeleton which helped shape life into being. It could be argued that as a flow of ions creates an electric field, this could have been pivotal in the formation of an energy dissipating structure, for instance, in deep sea thermal vents. Moreover, a field theory might also hint at the potential involvement of nontrivial quantum effects in life. Not only might this perspective help indicate the origins of morphogenetic fields, but also perhaps suggest where life may have started, and whether metabolism or information came first. It might also help to provide an insight into aging, cancer, consciousness, and, perhaps, how we might identify life beyond our planet. In short, when thinking about life, not only do we have to consider the accepted chemistry, but also the fields that must also shape it. In effect, to fully understand life, as well as the yin of accepted particle-based chemistry, there is a yang of field-based interaction and an ethereal skeleton

Thermodynamics and inflammation: insights into quantum biology and ageing

Inflammation as a biological concept has been around a long time and derives from the Latin “to set on fire” and refers to the redness and heat, and usually swelling, which accompanies injury and infection. Chronic inflammation is also associated with ageing and is described by the term “inflammaging”. Likewise, the biological concept of hormesis, in the guise of what “does not kill you, makes you stronger”, has long been recognized, but in contrast, seems to have anti-inflammatory and age-slowing characteristics. As both phenomena act to restore homeostasis, they may share some common underlying principles. Thermodynamics describes the relationship between heat and energy, but is also intimately related to quantum mechanics. Life can be viewed as a series of self-renewing dissipative structures existing far from equilibrium as vortexes of “negentropy” that ages and dies; but, through reproduction and speciation, new robust structures are created, enabling life to adapt and continue in response to ever changing environments. In short, life can be viewed as a natural consequence of thermodynamics to dissipate energy to restore equilibrium; each component of this system is replaceable. However, at the molecular level, there is perhaps a deeper question: is life dependent on, or has it enhanced, quantum effects in space and time beyond those normally expected at the atomistic scale and temperatures that life operates at? There is some evidence it has. Certainly, the dissipative adaptive mechanism described by thermodynamics is now being extended into the quantum realm. Fascinating though this topic is, does exploring the relationship between quantum mechanics, thermodynamics, and biology give us a greater insight into ageing and, thus, medicine? It could be said that hormesis and inflammation are expressions of thermodynamic and quantum principles that control ageing via natural selection that could operate at all scales of life. Inflammation could be viewed as a mechanism to remove inefficient systems in response to stress to enable rebuilding of more functional dissipative structures, and hormesis as the process describing the ability to adapt; underlying this is the manipulation of fundamental quantum principles. Defining what “quantum biological normality” is has been a long-term problem, but perhaps we do not need to, as it is simply an expression of one end of the normal quantum mechanical spectrum, implying that biology could inform us as to how we can define the quantum world

Precision MRI phenotyping enables detection of small changes in body composition for longitudinal cohorts

Longitudinal studies provide unique insights into the impact of environmental factors and lifespan issues on health and disease. Here we investigate changes in body composition in 3088 free-living participants, part of the UK Biobank in-depth imaging study. All participants underwent neck-to-knee MRI scans at the first imaging visit and after approximately two years (second imaging visit). Image-derived phenotypes for each participant were extracted using a fully-automated image processing pipeline, including volumes of several tissues and organs: liver, pancreas, spleen, kidneys, total skeletal muscle, iliopsoas muscle, visceral adipose tissue (VAT), abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue, as well as fat and iron content in liver, pancreas and spleen. Overall, no significant changes were observed in BMI, body weight, or waist circumference over the scanning interval, despite some large individual changes. A significant decrease in grip strength was observed, coupled to small, but statistically significant, decrease in all skeletal muscle measurements. Significant increases in VAT and intermuscular fat in the thighs were also detected in the absence of changes in BMI, waist circumference and ectopic-fat deposition. Adjusting for disease status at the first imaging visit did not have an additional impact on the changes observed. In summary, we show that even after a relatively short period of time significant changes in body composition can take place, probably reflecting the obesogenic environment currently inhabited by most of the general population in the United Kingdom

The role of insulin receptor substrate 2 in hypothalamic and beta cell function

Insulin receptor substrate 2 (Irs2) plays complex roles in energy homeostasis. We generated mice lacking Irs2 in beta cells and a population of hypothalamic neurons (RIPCreIrs2KO), in all neurons (NesCreIrs2KO), and in proopiomelanocortin neurons (POMCCreIrs2KO) to determine the role of Irs2 in the CNS and beta cell. RIPCreIrs2KO mice displayed impaired glucose tolerance and reduced P cell mass. Overt diabetes did not ensue, because beta cells escaping Cre-mediated recombination progressively populated islets. RIPCreIrs2KO and NesCreIrs2KO mice displayed hyperphagia, obesity, and increased body length, which suggests altered melanocortin action. POMCCreIrs2KO mice did not display this phenotype. RIPCreIrs2KO and NesCreIrs2KO mice retained leptin sensitivity, which suggests that CNS Irs2 pathways are not required for leptin action. NesCreIrs2KO and POMCCreIrs2KO mice did not display reduced beta cell mass, but NesCreIrs2KO mice displayed mild abnormalities of glucose homeostasis. RIPCre neurons did not express POMC or neuropeptide Y. Insulin and a melanocortin agonist depolarized RIPCre neurons, whereas leptin was ineffective. Insulin hyperpolarized and leptin depolarized POMC neurons. Our findings demonstrate a critical role for IRS2 in beta cell and hypothalamic function and provide insights into the role of RIPCre neurons, a distinct hypothalamic neuronal population, in growth and energy homeostasis