A study to examine the operation and function of a virtual UK environmental specimen bank (UK-ESB). Final report

Executive Summary: 1. Environmental specimen banking is recognised internationally as an integral part of long-term environmental research and monitoring. Analysis of preserved environmental samples is often needed to detect and quantify patterns and rate of environmental change, and the emergence and progression of environmental hazards and risks. 2. National Environmental Specimen Banks have been established in several countries; they vary in scope and breadth. There are a few specialised environmental specimen holdings in the UK but no national-scale catalogue of holdings, despite an estimated annual spend of £16 million to store specimens. This lack of information results in under-exploitation of archived specimens and is a lost opportunity to facilitate world-class science and identify emerging pressures and threats on the environment. 3. An earlier project had identified key stakeholder organisations either engaged in archiving nationally important environmental specimens or who wished to utilise such specimens. These stakeholders had agreed there was a need for a national metadata catalogue of environmental specimens (subsequently termed a virtual UK-ESB). The objective of the current project was to further develop a virtual UK-ESB. Specifically, the aim was to work with stakeholders to establish the correct metadata entry fields, the search capabilities, the functionality and the nature of the hosting website of a virtual UK-ESB. 4. More than 80 stakeholder organisations that had previously expressed an interest in a UK-ESB were approached to provide feedback either electronically or by attending a stakeholder workshop. Thirty eight organisations responded. All remained interested in the UK-ESB concept and seventeen answered the survey questions. 5. Mock-ups of data entry screens, search screens and ideas around the functionality of a UK-ESB were developed by the CEH project team. These were mailed to stakeholders for feedback. Initial feedback was incorporated into the mock-ups which were then presented for discussion at a workshop comprising 15 attendees from across the specimen archiving community, CEH and the UK-EOF. 6. Workshop participants reviewed and agreed the format of 23 mandatory or optional data-entry fields for a virtual UK-ESB that, in the absence of standard for material samples and archives, were aligned with ISO19115 (geospatial metadata standard) and DublinCore (metadata standard). These fields were sub-divided into the following headings: Sample description, Categorisation, keywords and links, Storage Information and Contact information. Workshop participants also made a number of recommendations as to the format of the data entry screens and inclusion of extra fields. 7. Workshop participants reviewed options for search capabilities and made recommendations as to simple and advanced searching methods and their formats. It was also recommended that search facilities of the ESBs of other countries be examined to determine what is used, ease of use, and how they match the recommendations from the workshop. 8. Workshop participants reviewed options for functionality and agreed a detailed list of prioritised requirements. 9. Workshop participants agreed that a virtual UK-ESB should be hosted through a dedicated website that would also provide wider information, such as recently updated or added specimen holdings, most downloaded information, links to other groups, standard operating procedures, etc. 10. The next step for the development of a virtual UK-ESB is to implement the design and development ideas captured in the current report and build a test version of a virtual UK-ESB. This would be tested and refined, and could then be launched on a specifically designed website. This would need to be accompanied by a communication strategy. There is potential to link and co-brand a virtual UK-ESB with the UK-Environmental Observation Framework (UK-EOF)

Lead (Pb) concentrations in predatory bird livers 2010 and 2011: a Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS) report

The Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS; http://pbms.ceh.ac.uk/) is the umbrella project that encompasses the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology’s National Capability contaminant monitoring and surveillance work on avian predators. By monitoring sentinel vertebrate species, the PBMS aims to detect and quantify current and emerging chemical threats to the environment and in particular to vertebrate wildlife. Lead (Pb) is a highly toxic metal that acts as a non-specific poison affecting all body systems and has no known biological requirement. Sources of Pb in the environment include lead mining, the refining and smelting of lead and other metals, the manufacture and use of alkyl lead fuel additives, and the use of lead ammunition. The present study is the first two years of a PBMS monitoring programme to quantify the scale of exposure to [and associated risk from] Pb in predatory birds. The aim is to quantify the extent of exposure to lead [as assessed from liver residues] in two predatory bird species, the red kite (Mivus milvus) and the sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus). The red kite is a scavenger and, as such, is particularly at risk from consumption of Pb ammunition in unretrieved game. Sparrowhawks prey predominantly upon live passerine birds that are unlikely to be shot in the UK; likely sources of exposure are diffuse Pb contamination although some individuals may also be exposed to Pb particles ingested by their prey. We also examined the liver Pb isotope ratios in to explore whether they can be used to ascribe likely sources of any Pb detected in the birds. Red kites had significantly higher Pb concentration than those measured in sparrowhawks but the majority of sparrowhawks and all the red kites had liver Pb concentrations below those thought to cause clinical and sub-clinical adverse effects in Falconiforme species. There was overlap in the liver Pb isotope ratios of red kites and sparrowhawks yet there was evidence of separation between the two species. There was also evidence of overlap with the isotope signature for coal and for Pb shot but the isotope signatures in the bird livers were distinct from that of petrol Pb. The Pb isotope pattern observed in the red kites and sparrowhawks in the current study may reflect the fact that liver Pb concentrations were low in the small sample of birds that were analysed and may have been a result of exposure to low-level, diffuse contamination.birds. Red kites had significantly higher Pb concentration than those measured in sparrowhawks but the majority of sparrowhawks and all the red kites had liver Pb concentrations below those thought to cause clinical and sub-clinical adverse effects in Falconiforme species. There was overlap in the liver Pb isotope ratios of red kites and sparrowhawks yet there was evidence of separation between the two species. There was also evidence of overlap with the isotope signature for coal and for Pb shot but the isotope signatures in the bird livers were distinct from that of petrol Pb. The Pb isotope pattern observed in the red kites and sparrowhawks in the current study may reflect the fact that liver Pb concentrations were low in the small sample of birds that were analysed and may have been a result of exposure to low-level, diffuse contamination

PBMS archive holdings: a Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS) report

The Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS; http://pbms.ceh.ac.uk/) is the umbrella project that encompasses the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology’s National Capability contaminant monitoring and surveillance work on avian predators. By monitoring sentinel vertebrate species, the PBMS aims to detect and quantify current and emerging chemical threats to the environment and in particular to vertebrate wildlife. As part of its chemical monitoring studies the PBMS receives and carries out post-mortem examinations on approximately 300 birds or prey each year. A range of tissues are taken from the carcasses. Around 100 addled and deserted eggs from various species are also submitted to the PBMS. The eggs are cracked open and the contents collected. The shells are retained for two years prior to being donated to the National Museums Scotland for cataloguing and archiving. The main purpose for collecting tissues and egg contents is for use in annual monitoring of pollutant concentrations by the PBMS. However, not all samples are used each year for chemical analyses and, even when samples are used, typically only a sub-sample is analysed. Samples that are not analysed or for which only a sub-sample is analysed are retained in the PBMS archive. Overall, the number of samples in the PBMS archive is approaching 50,000 tissue and egg content samples. The material in the archive is used for research studies investigating chemical fate and behaviour, to trial new monitoring, and for a wide range of other studies, some of which are unrelated to pollutants. The purpose of this short report is to summarise the main holdings in the PBMS archive. This is done for the seven species for which we currently or used to obtain relatively large numbers of carcasses. We also draw attention to holdings of a small number of other species which may be of priority conservation concern. The information is broken down by type of sample that is held, the decade in which it was collected, and provenance as to whether samples were from England and Wales, or Scotland. In addition to information on numbers of samples from carcasses, we provide a description on the holdings for the number of egg contents for various species, again broken down by decade and provenance

WILDCOMS (Wildlife Disease & Contaminant Monitoring and Surveillance network) annual report 2013-2014

This is the third and final annual report from WILDCOMS, a Natural Environment Research Council collaborative Knowledge Exchange network between ten UK surveillance schemes that monitor disease and contaminants in wild vertebrates. The overall aim of the WILDCOMS network is to foster and facilitate knowledge exchange, harmonisation towards best practice and productive collaboration between: (i) partner organisations; (ii) surveillance schemes and end-users. WILDCOMS aims to facilitate development of a more cost-effective and integrated evidence base for assessing environmental disease and contaminant risk that will benefit end-users and underpin regulatory policy. This report describes the activities of the WILDCOMS network in the third year (2013-14) including an update in the communication tools (wiki, website, quarterly and annual reports for stakeholders) and activities, such as articles in specialised “in-house” publications of key stakeholders and presentations at national and international conferences. This report also describes the development of the inventory on “Specimen archiving” and the recording of the sharing activities across all partners’ schemes as well as between the partners and other organisations. WILDCOMS has met the original goals set out in the grant proposal that was supported by NERC funding. WILDCOMS has established itself as a Knowledge Exchange network with a website that has up to 2000 visits per month and a mailing list of 484 stakeholders to date. The establishment of the network has facilitated greater collaboration and sharing of resources between WILDCOMS partners and has become a point of contact for organisations seeking advice in a wide range of wildlife pollution and disease issues. We have had very successful meetings with stakeholders in England (2012) and Scotland (2013). The funding for WILDCOMS has ceased, but the network will continue to run, albeit with a limited range of activities

Anticoagulant rodenticides in predatory birds 2012: a Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS) report

The Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS; http://pbms.ceh.ac.uk/) is the umbrella project that encompasses the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology’s National Capability contaminant monitoring and surveillance work on avian predators. By monitoring sentinel vertebrate species, the PBMS aims to detect and quantify current and emerging chemical threats to the environment and in particular to vertebrate wildlife. Anticoagulant rodenticides, and in particular second generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs), can be toxic to all mammals and birds. Predators that feed upon rodents are particularly likely to be exposed to these compounds. The PBMS, together with other studies, has shown that there is widespread exposure to SGARs of a diverse range of predators in Britain and that some mortalities occur as a result. This report describes the PBMS monitoring for SGARs in barn owls (Tyto alba) found dead in 2012, summarises long term trends in exposure in this species, and compares the relative prevalence of SGARs in barn owls in England and Scotland. We also report the results of an initial investigation into SGAR contamination in 42 sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus) found dead between 2010 and 2012. Sparrowhawks normally feed on birds and the aim of this investigation was to assess the potential importance of avian foodwebs in exposure of predators to SGARs. SGARs were detected in 87% of the 63 barn owls that were collected in 2012. The most prevalent compounds were difenacoum, bromadiolone and brodifacoum. The majority of the residues were low (< 0.1 µg/g wet weight). One owl was diagnosed as likely to have been poisoned by SGARs. Most of the sparrowhawk livers that were analysed had detectable liver SGAR concentrations, again mainly difenacoum, bromadiolone and brodifacoum (79%, 55% and 64% of birds, respectively). The proportion of sparrowhawks with detectable residues of one or more SGAR (93%) did not differ significantly from that for barn owls (86%) collected over the same time 2010-12 time period. Co-occurrence of multiple residues in the liver was common in barn owls and sparrowhawks (70% and 74% of birds respectively). Sparrowhawks had significantly lower liver sum SGAR concentrations than barn owls in those birds that had detectable residues. SGARs have been monitored in barn owls since 1983. Data on long-term trends have been adjusted to account for changes over time in sensitivity of analytical methods. This has meant that very low residues (<0.025 µg/g wet weight), which are now detectable, are not included in the time trend analysis. Overall, the proportion of both adult and juvenile barn owls with detectable liver concentrations of one or more SGAR has increased significantly over the course of monitoring. The proportion of barn owls with detectable SGAR residues over the period 1990-2012 was two-fold higher in England than in Scotland but residue magnitude did not differ between birds from the two areas

Anticoagulant rodenticides in sparrowhawks: a Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS) report

The Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS; http://pbms.ceh.ac.uk/) is the umbrella project that encompasses the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology’s National Capability activities for contaminant monitoring and surveillance work on avian predators. The PBMS aims to detect and quantify current and emerging chemical threats to the environment and in particular to vertebrate wildlife. Second generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) can be toxic to all mammals and birds. The PBMS together with other studies have shown that in Britain, there is widespread exposure to SGARs in a diverse range of predators of small mammals. Defra’s Wildlife Incident Monitoring Scheme (WIIS) and the PBMS have shown that some mortalities result from this exposure. The main transfer pathway for SGARs has been thought to be most likely via target and non-target rodents that eat SGAR bait. However, recent studies, including a preliminary analysis by the PBMS on sparrowhawks, Accipiter nisus, have suggested that that SGAR transfer through avian transfer pathways may also be important. The aims of the current study were to build on our earlier results by analysing a further 52 sparrowhawks for liver SGAR residues, and using the combined dataset to (i) assess overall levels of exposure in sparrowhawks from across Britain and (ii) determine if age and sex affect the magnitude of liver SGARs residues. A final aim was to compare exposure (assessed from liver residues) in sparrowhawks with that of the barn owl Tyto alba, a predator that takes predominantly small mammals We found one or more SGARs in the livers of 89% of the 94 sparrowhawks we analysed; all birds were collected by the PBMS between 2010 and 2013. A high proportion of these residues were relatively low and none were associated with haemorrhaging unconnected with physical trauma. The proportion of birds with detectable residues and the magnitude of those residues were significantly higher in adults than juveniles, but residues did not vary significantly between males and females. Comparison of liver SGAR residues in barn owls and sparrowhawks that had died over a similar time period indicated that, for both adults and juveniles, sparrowhawks were as likely to have detectable liver SGAR residues as barn owls but the magnitude of the residues was lower in sparrowhawks. Overall this study has demonstrated that food-chain transfer of SGARs can occur via a predominantly avian trophic pathway and lead to secondary exposure

Anticoagulant rodenticides in red kites (Milvus milvus) in Britain 2010 to 2015: a Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS) report

The Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS; http://pbms.ceh.ac.uk/) is the umbrella project that encompasses the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology’s National Capability activities for contaminant monitoring and surveillance work on avian predators. The PBMS aims to detect and quantify current and emerging chemical threats to the environment and in particular to vertebrate wildlife. Second generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) can be toxic to all mammals and birds. The PBMS together with other studies have shown that in Britain, there is widespread exposure to SGARs in a diverse range of predators of small mammals, including red kites (Milvus milvus) which will scavenge dead rats, a target species for rodent control. Defra’s Wildlife Incident Monitoring Scheme (WIIS) and the PBMS have shown that some mortalities result from this secondary exposure. The aims of the current study were to build on our earlier results by analysing liver SGAR residues in a further 24 red kites that had been submitted to the Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme between 2010 and 2015. We (i) assessed the scale and severity of exposure and, (ii) by combining the data with that from birds collected earlier (since 2006), we determined if age and sex affects the magnitude of liver SGARs residues accumulated in red kites. All of the 24 red kites contained detectable liver residues of one or more SGAR, and all but one bird (96%) contained residues of more than one SGAR. Difenacoum was detected most frequently (96% of birds) but bromadiolone and brodifacoum were both also detected in a large proportion of birds (83-88%). Most (approximately 75%) of the kites had sum SGAR livers concentrations >100 ng/g wet wt. and SGAR poisoning was likely to have been the cause of death in two birds. Relatively high liver SGAR residues were also detected in four other birds but they had external signs of trauma indicating they may have died from other causes. The monitoring of SGAR residues in red kites remains important contribution to our understanding of SGAR exposure in wildlife, particularly those issues related to scavenging species

The potential for the use of population health indices in the Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme: a Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS) report

The Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS; http://pbms.ceh.ac.uk/) is the umbrella project that encompasses the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology’s National Capability activities for contaminant monitoring and surveillance work on avian predators. The PBMS aims to detect and quantify current and emerging chemical threats to the environment and in particular to vertebrate wildlife. Each bird that is submitted to the scheme is given a post-mortem examination during which approximately 60 macroscopic observations and measurements are made. The information gathered during this examination could potentially be used to monitor health status of the birds at the time of their death or at a particular stage of their development. In the current study, we focused on examining potential health indicators for the sparrowhawk, Accipiter nisus, as a candidate species partly because we have a long track record of collecting carcasses and eggs of this species, and so hold a substantial associated post-mortem (PM) observations and egg morphometric data sets. This species is sexually dimorphic, another reason for using it as a candidate species as it allowed us to investigate if the various health indices would need to be (and could be) defined separately by age class and sex. We were able to establish baseline “norms” in the form of Shewhart charts for indicators that could be broadly categorised as indicators of change in: (i) population demography because of altered recruitment, survival and mortality (measures were sex ratio, proportion of first-year birds, proportion deaths from starvation or disease, eggshell index); (ii) nutritional status (measures were body weight, fat score, condition index) and (iii) physiological stress (fluctuating asymmetry). The measurements necessary to calculate these indices are routinely captured by the PBMS through direct input into an Oracle database at the time of PM examination. We also explored the potential for annual monitoring of feather corticosterone as a simple effects biomarker for environmental stress, including environmental contaminants, but further work and resource would be needed to incorporate any such measure into annual health surveillance monitoring. We outline how the health indices described here could be reported in real-time and extended to other species to provide surveillance across different trophic strategists, and ecosystems. This report is intended to prompt debate about the type of population health indices that may be of use in assessing environmental health. It is not intended to be definitive in terms of which should be used

Mercury (Hg) concentrations in predatory bird livers and eggs as an indicator of changing environmental concentrations: a Predatory Bird Monitoring Scheme (PBMS) report

Concern over the potential health effects of mercury (Hg) has prompted an international agreement, the Minamata Convention on Mercury, that aims to control anthropogenic releases to the environment and reduce potential impacts on humans and wildlife. Monitoring is required to determine to what extent the convention is successful. The PBMS has monitored long-term trends in environmental Hg concentration using raptors and fish-eating birds as sentinels to track changes in exposure. Overall, PBMS monitoring of Hg in predatory birds provides an evidence base by which the impact of the Minamata Convention on environmental mercury concentrations in Britain can be assessed. The current study consisted of four main aims that would help rationalize and inform our long-term Hg monitoring. (i) Updating long-term data for liver Hg concentrations in sparrowhawks, (Accipiter nisus), a sentinel for exposure in lowland terrestrial habitats. (ii) Exploration of the use of alternative tissues for monitoring Hg in sparrowhawks. (iii) Comparison of trends in liver Hg residues in sparrowhawks and kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) to examine if trends in sparrowhawks, which feed on relatively mobile avian prey, reflect those in kestrels which mainly feed on small mammals that are more likely to reflect local contamination. (iv) Completion of work initiated last year to explore the potential for using Hg concentrations in the eggs of inland-feeding golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) as a sentinel to track changes in Hg bioavailability and uptake by biota in upland terrestrial systems. We measured liver Hg residues in sparrowhawks that had died in 2013 and 2014 to quantify current Hg exposure in lowland terrestrial habitats and to add to previously reported long-term data. Mercury residues in birds that died in 2013 and 2014 were largely consistent with those reported in recent previous years and were below those associated with mortalities. Three birds had residues higher than those associated with potential adverse effects on reproduction. Analysis of long-term data (1990-2014) indicated liver Hg residues in sparrowhawks vary with age and sex; concentrations are highest in adult males. Starvation also elevates liver Hg concentrations. Taking age and sex into account and using only data for non-starved birds, we investigated temporal trends and found that, although there has been between-year variation in liver Hg concentrations, there has been no consistent upward or downward trend. We used the long-term dataset to define “current baseline” liver Hg concentrations against which levels in future years, and consistent time trends, can be quantitatively and rapidly assessed. We found that total Hg concentrations in sparrowhawk liver, kidney and brain were closely related. We conclude it is possible to transfer our long-term monitoring of Hg in sparrowhawks (including retrospective calculation of “current baseline concentrations”) to analysis of kidney or brain. This would preserve [what are relatively small] sparrowhawk livers for other analyses. Comparison of historic trends in liver Hg in sparrowhawks and kestrels indicated that rates of decline during 1980-1998 were similar in the two species. This is consistent with the premise that sparrrowhawks are as likely as kestrels to be representative of changes in environmental exposure to (and associated bioaccumulation of) Hg in lowland terrestrial systems. The conclusion of our work on Hg concentrations in golden eagle eggs enabled us to quantify a “baseline concentration” for eggs laid by females feeding predominantly on terrestrial prey. We can use this to identify significant changes in future exposure and associated bioaccumulation and thereby use our measurements as sentinel of future change in Hg bioavailability in upland habitats in northern Britain