Contemplative sciences: A future beyond mindfulness

Mindfulness is a psychological technique based on Eastern meditative practices that was developed in the late 1970s by Kabat-Zinn at the University of Massachusetts. Initially, there was a debate over whether it should be considered a scientific technique or labelled as part of the new wave practices. Today, mindfulness is omnipresent in modern societies but has suffered from merchandising and banalization, which has been strongly criticized. Despite some limitations regarding methodological aspects of mindfulness research, it is considered effective for treating many physical and psychological disorders, and even it is recommended in clinical guidelines such the British National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. During the last 2500 years, mindfulness practices have moved from Northern India across most of Asia, but their mixing with Western science and culture at the end of the 20(th) century is considered a key event in recent history. For the first time in human history, due to globalization, the wisdom of all contemplative traditions can be shared with all human beings and assessed by science. Mindfulness practices, yoga included, are giving birth to a new field of knowledge, contemplative sciences, which go beyond mindfulness and is devoted to helping humanity to reach higher levels of happiness and mental peace

Suppress to forget: The effect of a mindfulness-based strategy during an emotional item-directed forgetting paradigm

Forgetting is a common phenomenon in everyday life. Although it often has negative connotations, forgetting is an important adaptive mechanism to avoid loading the memory storage with irrelevant information. A very important aspect of forgetting is its interaction with emotion. Affective events are often granted special and priority treatment over neutral ones with regards to memory storage. As a consequence, emotional information is more resistant to extinction than neutral information. It has been suggested that intentional forgetting serves as a mechanism to cope with unwanted or disruptive emotional memories and the main goal of this study was to assess forgetting of emotional auditory material using the item-method directed forgetting (DF) paradigm using a forgetting strategy based on mindfulness as a means to enhance DF. Contrary to our prediction, the mindfulness-based strategy not only did not improve DF but reduced it for neutral material. These results suggest that an interaction between processes such as response inhibition and attention is required for intentional forgetting to succeed

How to reduce the number of rating scale items without predictability loss?

Rating scales are used to elicit data about qualitative entities (e.g., research collaboration). This study presents an innovative method for reducing the number of rating scale items without the predictability loss. The "area under the receiver operator curve method" (AUC ROC) is used. The presented method has reduced the number of rating scale items (variables) to 28.57\% (from 21 to 6) making over 70\% of collected data unnecessary. Results have been verified by two methods of analysis: Graded Response Model (GRM) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). GRM revealed that the new method differentiates observations of high and middle scores. CFA proved that the reliability of the rating scale has not deteriorated by the scale item reduction. Both statistical analysis evidenced usefulness of the AUC ROC reduction method.Comment: 14 pages, 5 figure

Mindfulness and Symptoms o f Depression and Anxiety in the General Population: The Mediating Roles of Worry, Rumination, Reappraisal and Suppression

The present study examined the effects of mindfulness on depression and anxiety, both direct and indirect through the mediation of four mechanisms of emotional regulation: worry, rumination, reappraisal and suppression. Path analysis was applied to data collected from an international and non-clinical sample of 1151 adults, including both meditators and non-meditators, who completed an online questionnaire battery. Our results show that mindfulness are related to lower levels of depression and anxiety both directly and indirectly. Suppression, reappraisal, worry and rumination all acted as significant mediators of the relationship between mindfulness and depression. A similar picture emerged for the relationship between mindfulness and anxiety, with the difference that suppression was not a mediator. Our data also revealed that the estimated number of hours of mindfulness meditation practice did not affect depression or anxiety directly but did reduce these indirectly by increasing mindfulness. Worry and rumination proved to be the most potent mediating variables. Altogether, our results confirm that emotional regulation plays a significant mediating role between mindfulness and symptoms of depression and anxiety in the general population and suggest that meditation focusing on reducing worry and rumination may be especially useful in reducing the risk of developing clinical depression

Burnout subtypes and absence of self-compassion in primary healthcare professionals: A cross-sectional study

Background: Primary healthcare professionals report high levels of distress and burnout. A new model of burnout has been developed to differentiate three clinical subtypes: ‘frenetic’, ‘underchallenged’ and ‘worn-out’. The aim of this study was to confirm the validity and reliability of the burnout subtype model in Spanish primary healthcare professionals, and to assess the explanatory power of the self-compassion construct as a possible protective factor.Method: The study employed a cross-sectional design. A sample of n = 440 Spanish primary healthcare professionals (214 general practitioners, 184 nurses, 42 medical residents) completed the Burnout Clinical Subtype Questionnaire (BCSQ-36), the Maslach Burnout Inventory General Survey (MBI-GS), the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS), the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The factor structure of the BCSQ-36 was estimated using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) by the unweighted least squares method from polychoric correlations. Internal consistency (R) was assessed by squaring the correlation between the latent true variable and the observed variables. The relationships between the BCSQ-36 and the other constructs were analysed using Spearman’s r and multiple linear regression models.Results: The structure of the BCSQ-36 fit the data well, with adequate CFA indices for all the burnout subtypes. Reliability was adequate for all the scales and sub-scales (R=0.75). Self-judgement was the self-compassion factor that explained the frenetic subtype (Beta = 0.36; p<0.001); isolation explained the underchallenged (Beta = 0.16; p = 0.010); and over-identification the worn-out (Beta = 0.25; p = 0.001). Other significant associations were observed between the different burnout subtypes and the dimensions of the MBI-GS, UWES and PANAS.Conclusions: The typological definition of burnout through the BCSQ-36 showed good structure and appropriate internal consistence in Spanish primary healthcare professionals. The negative self-compassion dimensions seem to play a relevant role in explaining the burnout profiles in this population, and they should be considered when designing specific treatments and interventions tailored to the specific vulnerability of each subtype

Meditation awareness training for the treatment of workaholism: a controlled trial

Background and aims: Workaholism is a form of behavioral addiction that can lead to reduced life and job satisfaction, anxiety, depression, burnout, work–family conflict, and impaired productivity. Given the number of people affected, there is a need for more targeted workaholism treatments. Findings from previous case studies successfully utilizing second-generation mindfulness-based interventions (SG-MBIs) for treating behavioral addiction suggest that SG-MBIs may be suitable for treating workaholism. This study conducted a controlled trial to investigate the effects of an SG-MBI known as meditation awareness training (MAT) on workaholism. Methods: Male and female adults suffering from workaholism (n = 73) were allocated to MAT or a waiting-list control group. Assessments were performed at pre-, post-, and 3-month follow-up phases. Results: MAT participants demonstrated significant and sustained improvements over control-group participants in workaholism symptomatology, job satisfaction, work engagement, work duration, and psychological distress. Furthermore, compared to the control group, MAT participants demonstrated a significant reduction in hours spent working but without a decline in job performance. Discussion and conclusions: MAT may be a suitable intervention for treating workaholism. Further controlled intervention studies investigating the effects of SG-MBIs on workaholism are warranted

Ontological addiction theory: attachment to me, mine, and I

Background: Ontological addiction theory (OAT) is a novel metaphysical model of psychopathology and posits that human beings are prone to forming implausible beliefs concerning the way they think they exist, and that these beliefs can become addictive leading to functional impairments and mental illness. The theoretical underpinnings of OAT derive from the Buddhist philosophical perspective that all phenomena, including the self, do not manifest inherently or independently. Aims and methods: This paper outlines the theoretical foundations of OAT along with indicative supportive empirical evidence from studies evaluating meditation awareness training as well as studies investigating non-attachment, emptiness, compassion, and loving-kindness. Results: OAT provides a novel perspective on addiction, the factors that underlie mental illness, and how beliefs concerning selfhood are shaped and reified. Conclusion: In addition to continuing to test the underlying assumptions of OAT, future empirical research needs to determine how ontological addiction fits with extant theories of self, reality, and suffering, as well with more established models of addiction

Gender differences in mental health during the economic crisis

Background: Economic crises have a negative effect on mental health. Little evidence has been published on the impact of economic downturns on male and female. The aim of the study was to analyze gender differences in specific mental disorders in primary care during the current economic recession in Spain. Method: A total of 7, 914 patients in 2006 and 5, 876 patients in 2010 were recruited to collect sociodemographic data and the Primary Care Evaluation of Mental Disorders. Results: Between 2006 and 2010 the prevalence of Major Depressive Disorder increased 155.7% in men and 104.9% in women; Generalized Anxiety Disorder increased 98.3% in men and 71.3% in women; and Multisomatoform Disorder increased 100.05% in men and 37% in women. The effect of the Employment confounder was significant across all comparisons: Major Depressive Disorder Generalized Odds Ratio=2.557 for Men (p<.001), 2.046 for Women (p=.002); Generalized Anxiety Disorder Generalized Odds Ratio= 2.153 (p<.001) for Men, 1.546 for Women (p<.001); and for Non-specific Multisomatoform Disorder Generalized Odds Ratio=1.680 for Men (p<.001) and 1.301 for women (p=.014). Conclusion: Overall prevalence of mental disorders increased significantly between 2006 and 2010, especially in males, who are more sensitive to the effect of the current economic recession than women. Antecedentes: el impacto de las crisis económicas sobre la salud mental está bien documentado, pero hay poca evidencia sobre el efecto diferencial que pueda tener entre hombres y mujeres. El objetivo fue analizar las diferencias de género en la prevalencia de trastornos mentales en atención primaria durante la recesión económica en España. Método: 7.914 pacientes en 2006-2007 y 5.876 en 2010-2011 fueron encuestados para recoger datos sociodemográficos y completar la entrevista Primary Care Evaluation of Mental Disorders. Resultados: entre 2006 y 2010 la prevalencia del Trastorno Depresivo Mayor incrementó 155, 7% en hombres y un 104, 9% en mujeres; el Trastorno de Ansiedad Generalizada aumentó 98, 3% en hombres y 71, 3% en mujeres; el Trastorno Multisomatomorfo incrementó 100, 05% en hombres y 37% en mujeres. El desempleo fue significativo en todos los análisis: Trastorno Depresivo Odds Ratio Generalizados= 2.557 en hombres (p<.001), 2.046 en mujeres (p= .002); Trastorno de Ansiedad Generalizada Odds Ratio Generalizados= 2.153 (p<.001) en hombres, 1.546 en mujeres (p<.001); Trastorno Multisomatoformo indiferenciado Odds Ratio Generalizados= 1.680 en hombres (p<.001) y 1.301 en mujeres (p= .014). Conclusiones: la prevalencia de los trastornos mentales se incrementó entre 2006 y 2010 en ambos sexos, pero especialmente en hombres, quienes son más sensibles a los efectos de la crisis económica

Zen meditation, length of telomeres, and the role of experiential avoidance and compassion

Mindfulness refers to an awareness that emerges by intentionally focusing on the present experience in a nonjudgmental or evaluative manner. Evidence regarding its efficacy has been increasing exponentially, and recent research suggests that the practice of meditation is associated with longer leukocyte telomere length. However, the psychological mechanisms underlying this potential relationship are unknown. We examined the telomere lengths of a group of 20 Zen meditation experts and another 20 healthy matched comparison participants who had not previously meditated. We also measured multiple psychological variables related to meditation practice. Genomic DNA was extracted for telomere measurement using a Life Length proprietary program. High-throughput quantitative fluorescence in situ hybridization (HT-Q-FISH) was used to measure the telomere length distribution and the median telomere length (MTL). The meditators group had a longer MTL (p = 0.005) and a lower percentage of short telomeres in individual cells (p = 0.007) than those in the comparison group. To determine which of the psychological variables contributed more to telomere maintenance, two regression analyses were conducted. In the first model, which applied to the MTL, the following three factors were significant: age, absence of experiential avoidance, and Common Humanity subscale of the Self Compassion Scale. Similarly, in the model that examined the percentage of short telomeres, the same factors were significant: age, absence of experiential avoidance, and Common Humanity subscale of the Self Compassion Scale. Although limited by a small sample size, these results suggest that the absence of experiential avoidance of negative emotions and thoughts is integral to the connection between meditation and telomeres