Natural Killer T Cells Activated by a Lipopeptidophosphoglycan from Entamoeba histolytica Are Critically Important To Control Amebic Liver Abscess

The innate immune response is supposed to play an essential role in the control of amebic liver abscess (ALA), a severe form of invasive amoebiasis due to infection with the protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica. In a mouse model for the disease, we previously demonstrated that Jα18-/- mice, lacking invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells, suffer from more severe abscess development. Here we show that the specific activation of iNKT cells using α-galactosylceramide (α-GalCer) induces a significant reduction in the sizes of ALA lesions, whereas CD1d−/− mice develop more severe abscesses. We identified a lipopeptidophosphoglycan from E. histolytica membranes (EhLPPG) as a possible natural NKT cell ligand and show that the purified phosphoinositol (PI) moiety of this molecule induces protective IFN-γ but not IL-4 production in NKT cells. The main component of EhLPPG responsible for NKT cell activation is a diacylated PI, (1-O-[(28∶0)-lyso-glycero-3-phosphatidyl-]2-O-(C16:0)-Ins). IFN-γ production by NKT cells requires the presence of CD1d and simultaneously TLR receptor signalling through MyD88 and secretion of IL-12. Similar to α-GalCer application, EhLPPG treatment significantly reduces the severity of ALA in ameba-infected mice. Our results suggest that EhLPPG is an amebic molecule that is important for the limitation of ALA development and may explain why the majority of E. histolytica-infected individuals do not develop amebic liver abscess

Salmonella Typhi Porins OmpC and OmpF Are Potent Adjuvants for T-Dependent and T-Independent Antigens

Several microbial components, such as bacterial DNA and flagellin, have been used as experimental vaccine adjuvants because of their inherent capacity to efficiently activate innate immune responses. Likewise, our previous work has shown that the major Salmonella Typhi (S. Typhi) outer membrane proteins OmpC and OmpF (porins) are highly immunogenic protective antigens that efficiently stimulate innate and adaptive immune responses in the absence of exogenous adjuvants. Moreover, S. Typhi porins induce the expression of costimulatory molecules on antigen-presenting cells through toll-like receptor canonical signaling pathways. However, the potential of major S. Typhi porins to be used as vaccine adjuvants remains unknown. Here, we evaluated the adjuvant properties of S. Typhi porins against a range of experimental and clinically relevant antigens. Co-immunization of S. Typhi porins with ovalbumin (OVA), an otherwise poorly immunogenic antigen, enhanced anti-OVA IgG titers, antibody class switching, and affinity maturation. This adjuvant effect was dependent on CD4+ T-cell cooperation and was associated with an increase in IFN-γ, IL-17A, and IL-2 production by OVA-specific CD4+ T cells. Furthermore, co-immunization of S. Typhi porins with an inactivated H1N1 2009 pandemic influenza virus experimental vaccine elicited higher hemagglutinating anti-influenza IgG titers, antibody class switching, and affinity maturation. Unexpectedly, co-administration of S. Typhi porins with purified, unconjugated Vi capsular polysaccharide vaccine (Vi CPS)—a T-independent antigen—induced higher IgG antibody titers and class switching. Together, our results suggest that S. Typhi porins OmpC and OmpF are versatile vaccine adjuvants, which could be used to enhance T-cell immune responses toward a Th1/Th17 profile, while improving antibody responses to otherwise poorly immunogenic T-dependent and T-independent antigens

Modulation of immune response by bacterial lipopolysaccharides

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a molecule that is profusely found on the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria and is also a potent stimulator of the immune response. As the main molecule on the bacterial surface, is also the most biologically active. The immune response of the host is activated by the recognition of LPS through Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and this receptor-ligand interaction is closely linked to LPS structure. Microorganisms have evolved systems to control the expression and structure of LPS, producing structural variants that are used for modulating the host immune responses during infection. Examples of this include Helicobacter pylori, Francisella tularensis, Chlamydia trachomatis and Salmonella spp. High concentrations of LPS can cause fever, increased heart rate and lead to septic shock and death. However, at relatively low concentrations some LPS are highly active immunomodulators, which can induce non-specific resistance to invading microorganisms. The elucidation of the molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in the recognition of LPS and its structural variants has been fundamental to understand inflammation and is currently a pivotal field of research to understand the innate immune response, inflammation, the complex host-pathogen relationship and has important implications for the rational development of new immunomodulators and adjuvants