Folate biosynthesis in higher plants. cDNA cloning, heterologous expression, and characterization of dihydroneopterin aldolases

Dihydroneopterin aldolase (EC 4.1.2.25) is one of the enzymes of folate synthesis that remains to be cloned and characterized from plants. This enzyme catalyzes conversion of 7,8-dihydroneopterin (DHN) to 6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin, and is encoded by the folB gene in Escherichia coli. The E. coli FolB protein also mediates epimerization of DHN to 7,8-dihydromonapterin. Searches of the Arabidopsis genome detected three genes encoding substantially diverged FolB homologs (AtFolB1–3, sharing 57%–73% identity), for which cDNAs were isolated. A fourth cDNA specifying a FolB-like protein (LeFolB1) was obtained from tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) by reverse transcription-PCR. When overproduced in E. coli, recombinant AtFolB1, AtFolB2, and LeFolB1 proteins all had both dihydroneopterin aldolase and epimerase activities, and carried out the aldol cleavage reaction on the epimerization product, 7,8-dihydromonapterin, as well as on DHN. AtFolB3, however, could not be expressed in active form. Size exclusion chromatography indicated that the plant enzyme is an octamer, like the bacterial enzyme. Quantifying expression of the Arabidopsis genes by real-time reverse transcription-PCR showed that AtFolB1 and AtFolB2 messages occur at low levels throughout the plant, whereas the AtFolB3 mRNA was detected only in siliques and only with an extremely low abundance. Sequence comparisons and phylogenetic analysis of FolB homologs from 16 plants indicated that their N-terminal regions are highly variable, and that most species have a small number of FolB genes that diverged after separation of the lineages leading to families. The substantial divergence of FolB homologs in Arabidopsis and other plants suggests that some of them may act on substrates other than DHN

Experimental Assessment of Possible Factors Associated with Tick-Borne Encephalitis Vaccine Failure

Currently the only effective measure against tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is vaccination. Despite the high efficacy of approved vaccines against TBE, rare cases of vaccine failures are well documented. Both host- and virus-related factors can account for such failures. In this work, we studied the influence of mouse strain and sex and the effects of cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression on the efficacy of an inactivated TBE vaccine. We also investigated how an increased proportion of non-infectious particles in the challenge TBE virus would affect the protectivity of the vaccine. The vaccine efficacy was assessed by mortality, morbidity, levels of viral RNA in the brain of surviving mice, and neutralizing antibody (NAb) titers against the vaccine strain and the challenge virus. Two-dose vaccination protected most animals against TBE symptoms and death, and protectivity depended on strain and sex of mice. Immunosuppression decreased the vaccine efficacy in a dose-dependent manner and changed the vaccine-induced NAb spectrum. The vaccination protected mice against TBE virus neuroinvasion and persistence. However, viral RNA was detected in the brain of some asymptomatic animals at 21 and 42 dpi. Challenge with TBE virus enriched with non-infectious particles led to lower NAb titers in vaccinated mice after the challenge but did not affect the protective efficacy

Synthesis and Characterization of Cytidine Derivatives that Inhibit the Kinase IspE of the Non-Mevalonate Pathway for Isoprenoid Biosynthesis

The enzymes of the non-mevalonate pathway for isoprenoid biosynthesis are attractive targets for the development of novel drugs against malaria and tuberculosis. This pathway is used exclusively by the corresponding pathogens, but not by humans. A series of water-soluble, cytidine-based inhibitors that were originally designed for the fourth enzyme in the pathway, IspD, were shown to inhibit the subsequent enzyme, the kinase IspE (from Escherichia coli). The binding mode of the inhibitors was verified by co-crystal structure analysis, using Aquifex aeolicus IspE. The crystal structures represent the first reported example of a co-crystal structure of IspE with a synthetic ligand and confirmed that ligand binding affinity originates mainly from the interactions of the nucleobase moiety in the cytidine binding pocket of the enzyme. In contrast, the appended benzimidazole moieties of the ligands adopt various orientations in the active site and establish only poor intermolecular contacts with the protein. Defined binding sites for sulfate ions and glycerol molecules, components in the crystallization buffer, near the well-conserved ATP-binding Gly-rich loop of IspE were observed. The crystal structures of A. aeolicus IspE nicely complement the one from E. coli IspE for use in structure-based design, namely by providing invaluable structural information for the design of inhibitors targeting IspE from Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Plasmodium falciparum. Similar to the enzymes from these pathogens, A. aeolicus IspE directs the OH group of a tyrosine residue into a pocket in the active site. In the E. coli enzyme, on the other hand, this pocket is lined by phenylalanine and has a more pronounced hydrophobic character.