The prevalence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and multidrug resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa in healthy captive ophidian

Background Snakes are globally considered as pet animals, and millions of ophidians are bred in captivity. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a ubiquitous Gram-negative bacterium that can act as an opportunistic pathogen of man and animals and is frequently present in the oral and cloacal microbiota of healthy ophidians. It can cause severe clinical diseases and often shows antibiotic resistance. The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence and antibiotic resistance profiles of P. aeruginosa isolated from the cloacal microbiota of a large population sample of healthy captive ophidians and to evaluate the statistical associations with farming conditions. Methods A total of 419 cloacal swabs were collected from snakes belonging to the Boidae (n = 45), Colubridae (n = 48) and Pythonidae (n = 326) families and inoculated onto complete culture media. Food, water and bedding samples were also analyzed. The antimicrobial susceptibility of P. aeruginosa isolates was evaluated through the Kirby-Bauer agar diffusion test. Statistical analyses were performed with the chi-square test. Results The prevalence of P. aeruginosa was 59.9%, and 35.5% of these strains were multidrug resistant (MDR). The prevalence of MDR P. aeruginosa was significantly higher in adult samples than in young samples, and widespread resistance to Cephalosporins, Polymyxins and Sulfonamides was observed. Statistically significant differences in the prevalence of P. aeruginosa were observed depending on the farm size and snake family. Feeding thawed prey was associated with a higher P. aeruginosa and MDR P. aeruginosa prevalence. Moreover, snakes fed home-raised prey had a significantly higher MDR P. aeruginosa prevalence than snakes fed commercially available feed. Less frequent terrarium cleaning was associated with a higher MDR P. aeruginosa prevalence. On the other hand, snake reproductive status was not significantly associated with P. aeruginosa or MDR P. aeruginosa prevalence. All food, water and bedding samples were negative for P. aeruginosa presence. Discussion The overall P. aeruginosa prevalence found in this study was lower than that found by other authors, but a high proportion of the isolates were MDR. This study highlighted the presence of constitutive (such as age and taxonomic family) and managerial (farm size, cleaning cycle frequency and food type) factors associated with P. aeruginosa and/or MDR P. aeruginosa prevalence. Good breeding management and proper antibiotic treatment of P. aeruginosa infections could help reduce the presence of P. aeruginosa and MDR P. aeruginosa in the gut microbiota of snakes and consequently reduce the risk to public health

Lateral Approach for Excision of Maxillary Incisor Pseudo-Odontoma in Prairie Dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus)

AIM: To describe our experience with lateral approach for excision of maxillary pseudo-odontomas and to illustrate surgical outcomes and postoperative complications in seven pet prairie dogs.MATERIALS AND METHODS: Excision of 11 maxillary pseudo-odontomas was performed in seven prairie dogs with a lateral approach technique and clinical presentation, duration of surgery, time and type of post-surgical complications, presence or absence of symptom recurrence, time to follow-up, overall survival time and causes of death of each case were recorded.RESULTS: Duration of surgery, postoperative hospitalization and time to autonomous feeding were 54.8 min, 58 h and 1 day, respectively. Recurrence of respiratory symptoms was observed in four cases. Mean follow-up time was 632 days. Six out of seven cases were still alive at the end of the study.CONCLUSION: The lateral approach to excision showed good and promising results for treatment of maxillary pseudo-odontomas in prairie dogs

Monitoring of the Reproductive Cycle in Captive-Bred Female Boa constrictor: Preliminary Ultrasound Observations

The Boa constrictor is one of the most common reptiles bred in captivity. To achieve a successful breeding season, thorough knowledge of the females’ reproductive activity is necessary. In this regard, information on the Boa constrictor is still rather scarce. The aim of the present study was to monitor the ovarian activity and the embryonic development of boas by ultrasound. We performed brief scans on thirty non-anaesthetized snakes using a portable ultrasound system and a 7.5–10 MHz linear array transducer (Esaote MyLab™ Classic). Ultrasound features, dimensions, and echogenicity of the preovulatory and postovulatory follicles were determined. As gestation progresses, the postovulatory follicle size increases, and the embryonic silhouette becomes increasingly recognizable. During the second month after ovulation, by using color Doppler, early embryos’ heart activity could be evaluated. It is possible to highlight vascular connections between the mother and the membrane covering the embryonic structures. Ultrasound also allows one to identify follicular regression or slugs (nonfertilized eggs) early. The present study suggests that ultrasound could be an excellent noninvasive technique to evaluate the reproductive activity of Boa constrictor, allowing us to precisely identify the correct time for mating, monitor embryo development and viability, and allow the early diagnosis of follicular regression

PROGESTERONE ROLE IN THE REGULATION OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE IN CAPTIVE ROYAL PYTHON (P. REGIUS): PRELIMINARY STUDY

Current studies support an important role for progesterone in the reproduction activity of reptiles [1]. Although detection of hormone levels in serum or plasma is the most direct method, blood sampling is quite invasive and therefore not easily repeatable on healthy animal for monitoring purposes, mostly in non-conventional and wild animals, particularly susceptible to stress. Noninvasive monitoring using feces has been successfully applied to many species and correlations between serum hormone levels and fecal metabolites have been demonstrated. So far very few studies regarding the monitoring of fecal steroid hormones metabolites in reptiles are reported in literature [2]. Royal python (P. regius) is one of the snake species most bred in captivity. However, studies regarding the evaluation of sex steroid hormones in the P. regius female reproductive cycle are not currently reported. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the variations of progesterone levels during the female reproductive cycle of captive bred Royal python, through faecal progesterone metabolites measurement. A total of 86 adult female were studied between January 2016 and January 2017. All animals were captive born, fed a diet of commercially raised rats and individually housed in rack at 28°C under a 12:12 h L/D cycle. Faecal samples were monthly collected and classified according to reproductive stages, identified by ultrasound scans of ovaries, follicles and eggs [3]. The samples were then processed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using a species-independent kit (Progesterone Enzyme Immunoassay Kit K025-H5, Arbor Assays DetectX®, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA) and mean fecal progesterone level (ng/g) for each phase of the reproductive cycle was calculated. Progesterone faecal metabolites reveal an increasing trend during the reproductive cycle. Metabolites concentrations corresponding to the reproductive quiescence (anovulatory phase) and the next stage in which restarts the ovarian activity (transition) are lower than those detected during the later stages of follicular and eggs development (folliculogenesis and embryogenesis) until deposition, with statistically significant difference (P<0.01). The high levels of progesterone highlighted during gestation, with a sharp decrease in correspondence to egg laying, recall the plasma progesterone trend evidenced during the reproductive cycle in some species of viviparous snakes [1]. From the results of this study, it can be supposed that progesterone plays a role in in the maintenance of pregnancy in captive Royal python. [1] Taylor EN, DeNardo DF, Jennings DH. 2004. Seasonal steroid hormone levels and their relation to reproduction in the Western Diamond-backed Rattlesnake, Crotalus atrox (Serpentes:Viperidae). Gen Comp Endocrinol, 136:328–337 [2] Kummrow MS, Gilman C, Mackie P, Smith DA, Mastromonaco GF. 2011. Noninvasive Analysis of Fecal Reproductive Hormone Metabolites in Female Veiled Chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus) by Enzyme Immunoassay. Zoo Biol, 30:95-115 [3] Bertocchi M, Di Ianni F, Bresciani C, Volta A, Bigliardi E, de Cesaris V, Ponzio P, Macchi E, Parmigiani E. Ultrasound monitoring of female reproductive cycle in captive Royal pythons (Python regius): preliminary observations. Short communication paper. Atti LXX Convegno SISVet-XIV Convegno SIRA 13-16 giugno 2016, p237. Palermo, Ital

Conjunctival flora of clinically normal and diseased turtles and tortoises

Background: In captive breed turtles and tortoises conjunctival disease is common. Our aim was to investigate the bacterial and fungal flora present in the eyes of healthy and pathological chelonians and to compare findings in turtles with those in tortoises. Results: Samples were taken from the conjunctival sacs of 34, diseased and healthy, chelonians (18 tortoises and 16 turtles) and submitted to bacterial and fungal investigation. All samples showed bacterial growth. Thirteen animals (38%), harboured a single bacterial species as sole isolate and twenty-one animals (62%) harboured more than one species. Detection of multiple bacterial infection was clearly greater in tortoises compared to turtles. Most frequently isolated bacterial species were Bacillus spp. (13 isolates), Staphylococcus xylosus (10 isolates), Sphingomonas paucimobilis (6 isolates), Staphylococcus sciuri and Aeromonas hydrophila/caviae (each 5 isolates), Ochrobactrum anthropi (3 isolates), Citrobacter freundii, Enterobacter cloacae and Pseudomonas luteola (each 2 isolates). Only one isolate of Kocuria varians/rosea, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus auricularis, Staphylococcus haemolyticus, Staphylococcus lentus, Morganella morganii, Pasteurella multocida, Pasteurella pneumotropica/haemolytica, Proteus spp., Pseudomonas putida, Salmonella enterica ssp. arizonae, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Vibrio parahaemolyticus was evidenced. The presence in 8 animals of Mycoplasma spp. and in 1 animal with severe conjunctivitis of Chlamydia spp. was detected by PCR. Candida spp. was also isolated from two healthy animals. Conclusions: A clear predominance of Gram positive isolates in tortoises and Gram negative isolates in turtles was found. However, we cannot ascribe the observed difference to the diversity of animal species, as other factors, including especially different characteristics of the living environments, may play a role. Almost all bacterial species isolated may have clinical significance, mostly as opportunistic pathogens, both for humans and animals. That chelonians are often carrier of bacteria with zoonotic potential is a well-known fact, in particular with regard to Salmonella spp. Therefore, it is not surprising the detection of a strain of Salmonella enterica ssp. arizonae in the eye of one of the animals tested. Worthy of note is the finding of Chlamydia spp. in a severe case of conjunctivitis, though we cannot epidemiologically assess a cause-effect relationship between presence of chlamydia and disease

Detection and Identification of <i>Mycoplasmopsis agassizii</i> in Captive Tortoises with Different Clinical Signs in Italy

Mycoplasmopsis agassizii causes the Upper Respiratory Tract Disease (URTD) in tortoises. The severity of the disease usually ranges from mild to severe respiratory signs. Animals can recover, die, or become asymptomatic carriers and are source of infection for other tortoises. This study describes (i) the clinical history and the results obtained in ten years of diagnostic PCR activity for detecting M. agassizii in different species of captive tortoises in Italy, and (ii) the phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene sequences of M. agassizii. A total of 26.0% out of 169 samples resulted positive by PCR and 32 out of 75 (42.7%) animals with symptoms were positive. Sequences ob-tained from the PCR products were conserved, differed from the sequence of the M. agassizii type strain PS6, and were identical to many M. agassizii sequences deposited in databases. In particular, the sequences were identical or very similar to sequences obtained previously from tortoises in It-aly. Since samples collected from different anatomical sites resulted positive, it is suggested that pools of conjunctival, nasal and oral swabs are tested for diagnostic purpose in both symptomatic and asymptomatic animals

Acute tea tree oil intoxication in a pet cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus): a case report

Phytotherapy is becoming a more and more common practice, not only for personal care but also for pet care. Nevertheless, we often have to deal with substances on which, in most cases, very little literature is available, even more so if the species of interest are the exotic ones. In particular, the essential oil from the Melaleuca leaves, because of its antinflammatory and antibacterial properties, is widely used and very little is known about its potential toxicity on pet birds. The present paper describes the first case of Tea tree oil intoxication in a pet bird