The five self-determination mini-theories applied to sport

Motivation is a key component of maintaining successful and worthwhile sports participation, irrespective of whether sport refers to a sociable game of tennis between friends or an Olympic final with a global audience watching. Scholarly attempts to understand motivational phenomena in sporting contexts have, therefore, gained considerable momentum and a framework that often underpins these endeavours is self-determination theory (SDT). SDT’s empirical beginnings are observable in research concerning ‘the effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation’ (Deci, 1971) and the theory began to be applied to sports and competitive settings in the following years (e.g. Vallerand, 1983; Weinberg, 1979). Partly due to this early work, SDT is commonly described as a theory of motivation; however, its expansion to include five complementary mini-theories now encompasses motivation, human development, well-being, and personality. These theories are presented in subsequent sections of this chapter and relevant sport-based research is evaluated. Sporting applications are integrated within this commentary and potential future research questions are raised in the hope of stimulating novel and groundbreaking research

Reciprocal effects of motivation in physical education and self-reported physical activity

Objectives: The present study tested whether self-reported school and leisure-time physical activity have a reciprocal relationship with Physical Education (PE)-based motivational regulations described by selfdetermination theory. Participants were 635 11- and 12-year-old school children from the United Kingdom. Design & Method: A cross-lagged longitudinal design over two time points was employed. Study hypotheses were analyzed using latent factor reciprocal effects models. Results: Following temporal invariance tests, data revealed positive relationships between both types of physical activity and subsequent changes in autonomous motivation, but not the oft-stated reverse relationship. No relationships were observed involving introjected regulation. Theoretically aligned relationships between external regulation and changes in physical activity were observed, but no reverse relationships. Both types of physical activity behavior were negatively associated with changes in amotivation in PE, but surprisingly, amotivation in PE positively predicted changes in leisure-time physical activity. Conclusions: In general, physical activity participation may help children internalize reasons for partaking in PE and foster self-determination. However, the widespread theory that self-determined PE motives can develop school and leisure-time physical activity participation was not compellingly demonstrated

Teacher motivational strategies and student self-determination in physical education

Physical Education teachers can influence students’ self-determination through the motivational strategies they use. This study examined the relationship between teachers’ perceptions of class average self-determination, the teachers’ self-determination, and their reported use of three motivational strategies: Autonomy support, structure, and involvement. Furthermore, the relationship between the three motivational strategies, students’ perceptions of psychological need satisfaction and students' self-determination was examined. Also, the relationship between teachers’ and students’ self-determination was investigated. Multilevel and standard regression analyses revealed that teachers’ perceptions of class average self-determination predicted their reported use of the motivational strategies, and this relationship was mediated by their own selfdetermination. Also, student perceptions of the three strategies impacted positively upon their own self-determination, and this relationship was mediated by their reported satisfaction of autonomy and competence. Finally, teachers’ self-determination did not predict students’ self-determination. The importance of promoting an adaptive motivational context for both teachers and students is discussed with reference to selfdetermination theory

Disentangling within-person changes and individual differences among fundamental need satisfaction, attainment of acquisitive desires, and psychological health

We explored within-person and individual difference associations among basic psychological need satisfaction (autonomy, competence, and relatedness), attainment of acquisitive desires (wealth and popularity) and indicators of well- and ill-being. Participants were 198 undergraduates (51% male) who completed an inventory multiple times over a university semester. Analyses revealed that increased satisfaction of all the needs and desires beyond participants’ normal levels, with the exception of relatedness, were associated with greater psychological welfare. Nonetheless, individual differences in well-being were only predicted by psychological need satisfaction, and not by the attainment of acquisitive desires. Hence, the realization of acquisitive desires may elicit within-person increases in psychological welfare; however, satisfying innate needs may be a better bet for long term psychological health

The importance of disaggregating within-person changes and individual differences among internalized motives, self-esteem and self-efficacy

Grounded in self-determination theory, this study examined the implications of differentiating between within-person weekly changes and between-person differences in average levels of autonomy support and internalized motivation for one’s self-esteem and self-efficacy. Thirty-nine adults who were socially disadvantaged and unemployed completed weekly questionnaire assessments over 11-weeks of a sports-based educational program. Multilevel modeling revealed that within-person changes in perceptions of autonomy support positively predicted identified regulation and introjected regulation; however, between-person differences in perceived autonomy support predicted identified regulation only. Within-person changes in introjected regulation positively predicted global self-esteem and self-efficacy towards future employment in coaching; however, between-person differences in introjected regulation negatively predicted self-esteem and self-efficacy. In contrast, within-person changes in identified regulation, as well as between-person differences, were positively associated with self-efficacy. Between-person differences in identified regulation also positively predicted self-esteem. It was also demonstrated that many of these contrasting relationships are hidden if the different processes are not disaggregated. As a result, we propose that different internalization processes exist which depend on whether within-person changes or sustained levels of motivation are explored

‘I’m proud of what I achieved; I’m also ashamed of what I done’: a soccer coach’s tale of sport, status, and criminal behaviour

The purpose of this study was to explore the life of John (a pseudonym), a soccer coach working with disadvantaged young people. Six open-ended life history interviews over a ten week period ranging between 45 and 75 min were conducted. John described how soccer was fully entwined with aspects of his former delinquent and criminal lifestyle, including missing school lessons to play soccer, the fusion of soccer and youth violence, and competing in teams with local criminals. On the other hand, a soccer programme for people with limited opportunities helped him leave behind a life of delinquency, gang fighting, and selling drugs. Moreover, he came to understand that soccer could help him satisfy his desire for social recognition and fit with a relational narrative in a more socially legitimate way. This study provides an insight into how soccer was used to thwart a soccer coach’s formal criminal lifestyle, and also warns against uncritical assumptions that sport can serve as a panacea for deviant behaviour

The social environment and developmental experiences in elite youth soccer

Objectives: We aimed to examine social-contextual correlates of players' developmental experiences in an elite youth soccer context. Specifically, we hypothesized that player perceptions of team cohesion and coach rapport would be positively associated with psychological need fulfillment. In turn, psychological need satisfaction was proposed to be positively related to adaptive developmental experiences in youth soccer (i.e., opportunities for leadership, emotional regulation, and goal setting), and negatively related to social exclusion.Design: Cross-sectional.Method: 133 male elite soccer players, aged between 11 and 18 years old, completed a self-report questionnaire assessing the variables of interest.Results: Using path analysis and bootstrapping methods, we found support for the overall model fit of the hypothesized conceptual framework and specific study hypotheses.Conclusions: This study utilizes strong theoretical foundations to underscore the role of the coach and team environment in facilitating positive youth outcomes, and highlights a potential mechanism that may explain these processes

The relationship between psychological well- and ill-being, and perceived autonomy supportive and controlling interpersonal styles: A longitudinal study of sport coaches

The present study longitudinally explored sports coaches' psychological well-being (positive affect and integration of coaching with one's sense of self) and ill-being (negative affect and devaluation of coaching) as predictors of their perceived autonomy supportive and controlling interpersonal styles towards individuals under their instruction. Participants were 195 sport coaches who completed questionnaire measures at three time points across an eleven-month period. Controlling for social desirability, multilevel analyses revealed that within-person increases and individual differences in positive affect and integration were positively associated with autonomy support. Conversely, within-person increases and individual differences in negative affect, but not devaluation, were associated with increased use of interpersonal control. The indicators of well-being did not predict interpersonal control and the indicators of ill-being did not predict autonomy support. In their entirety, the present findings suggest that autonomy supportive and controlling interpersonal styles have unique correlates, and affective determinants may play a particularly central role in controlling interpersonal styles. Supporting the psychological health of coaches may lead them to create an adaptive interpersonal environment for their athletes

Interpersonal mechanisms explaining the transfer of well- and ill-being in coach-athlete dyads

The current study explored coaches’ interpersonal behaviors as a mechanism for well- and ill- being contagion from coach to athlete, and vice versa. Eighty-two coach-athlete dyads from individual sports completed self-report measures before and after a training session. Structural equation modeling supported three actor-partner interdependence mediation models, in which coaches’ pre-session well- and ill-being were associated with changes in athletes’ well- and ill-being over the course of the session. These relationships were mediated by athletes’ perceptions of their coaches’ interpersonal styles during the session. The reciprocal transfer from athlete to coach was not fully supported. Nonetheless, coaches’ perceptions of their own interpersonal behavior were associated with changes in their post-session well- and ill-being. Overall, evidence is provided for the contagion of affect from authority figures to those under their instruction, but not vice versa

Measuring student motivation for physical education: examining the psychometric properties of the Perceived Locus of Causality Questionnaire and the Situational Motivation Scale

OBJECTIVES. The purpose of this study was to evaluate, within a cross-cultural context, the psychometric properties of scores derived from the Perceived Locus of Causality Questionnaire (PLOCQ) and the Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS). Both questionnaires are grounded in self-determination theory and are commonly employed in physical education research. METHOD. Secondary school students from the United Kingdom (UK; n = 300, mean age = 13.71) and Hong Kong (HK; n = 342, mean age = 15.34 years) completed both questionnaires prior to a physical education lesson. RESULTS. Internal consistency analyses, as well as single and multi-group confirmatory factor analyses produced evidence that largely supported the reliability and validity of PLOCQ and SIMS scores in the UK sample. However, the analyses indicated some areas of concern regarding the internal consistency of the external and introjected regulation PLOCQ items in the HK sample. Also, identified regulation and intrinsic motivation constructs were not distinguishable by youth in either culture in either questionnaire. Finally, compared with the UK, students in HK interpreted the SIMS external regulation items to be more selfdetermined. CONCLUSIONS. Researchers interested in studying contextual and situational motivation in UK physical education classes should, in general, feel confident in using the PLOCQ and the SIMS, respectively. However, our results highlight some important difficulties in the measurement of contextual and situational motivation in HK Chinese students. Further research is needed to better understand how students from different cultures respond to items intended to tap controlling forms of motivation