All about size? – The potential of downsizing in reducing energy demand

Residential energy consumption is one of the main contributors to CO2 emissions in the UK. One strategy aimed at reducing emissions is to increase retrofitting rates of buildings. In this paper, an alternative approach is discussed and its potential impact on energy use assessed, that of downsizing (moving to smaller homes). Reviews of previous research show that a wide range of what can be termed psychological barriers exist to downsizing, such as the loss of ownership and independence, concern about what to do with possessions, not having enough space for visitors, and attachment to one’s home. Benefits of downsizing from a personal perspective are economic, with lower bills and/or rent, release of capital, lower maintenance costs, and also potential lifestyle improvements including living in easier-to-maintain and more age-appropriate housing. Wider societal benefits include the potential to significantly reduce energy consumption, and mitigating the housing crisis in cities where not enough properties are available. Empirical analysis on a nationally representative sample in England showed that building size alone accounts for 24% of the variability in energy consumption (compared to 11% of household size). If single-person households with more than two bedrooms downsized by one bedroom, energy-savings of 8% could be achieved, and if single-person households occupied only one bedroom, savings of 27%. Data also showed a significant amount of underoccupation, with almost two-thirds of households having more bedrooms than considered necessary compared to the bedroom-standard. However, analysis also revealed a structural barrier to downsizing, namely the lack of available alternative, smaller houses. The evidence would suggest that downsizing could realize significant energy savings, and address a range of other social benefits. However, against this stand significant personal interests, inadequate alternative housing and other infrastructure issues. Promoting downsizing as a means to achieve energy policy goals is therefore a potentially significant but socially challenging policy option

A structured open data collection on occupant behaviour in buildings

Climate change cannot be addressed without improving the energy efficiency of the buildings in which we live and work. The papers in this collection describe and release a series of datasets that help us understand how occupants influence and experience building energy use, both to aid future research and policy-development, and to spark wider data sharing in this important area

Observational evidence of the seasonal and demographic variation in experienced temperature from 77,743 UK Biobank participants

Background: Exposure to cold is known to be associated with severe health impacts. The primary epidemiological evidence for this is the seasonal variation in mortality. However, there is a paucity of directly measured data for personal cold temperature exposure. This paper develops the concept of experienced temperature, and reports how it varies with season, demographics and housing factors. / Methods: This study uses data from 77 743 UK Biobank participants. A novel method to directly measure participant’s exposure to low temperatures using a thermistor in a wrist-worn activity monitor is described. These readings are combined with demographic and housing factor variables in a multiple regression model to understand underlying relationships. / Results: The study reveals a significant difference in experienced temperature of ~1.8°C between the periods of coldest and hottest external temperature. A number of demographic differences were also observed—such as people of Chinese ethnic background experiencing 0.65°C lower temperatures than other groups. / Conclusions: This paper presents primary evidence for a seasonal variation in experienced temperature. This variation likely contributes to cold related mortality and morbidity. It is hypothesized that this relationship would be less strong in countries which suffer fewer impacts of cold winter temperatures

What motivates retrofitting? Results of a nationally representative sample in Great Britain

Energy use in buildings is one of the largest contributors to total energy consumption. The UK Government established the goal of reducing carbon emissions from homes by 29% by 2020, with energy efficiency improvements forming a central part of the plans. However, the recent ‘Green Deal’ policy to promote energy-efficiency measures in homes through financial incentives had very little uptake. In a nationally representative survey, we assessed framing effects on the hypothetical uptake of free home insulation provided by the energy supplier. The frames tested were: (1) monetary savings, (2) a warmer home, (3) carbon savings, (4) health benefits, and (5) social norms. The option emphasizing monetary savings was associated with significantly higher likeliness to take up the offer than any of the other options, which all received similar mean ratings. Higher trust in the energy supplier was associated with higher likeliness to participate in the scheme. Financial benefits seem to be the greatest incentive for retrofit measures, supporting policy based on them. In this context we critically discuss the apparent failure of the Green Deal, and suggest how the importance of trust in the energy supplier could be used in the future

Improving energy research practices: guidance for transparency, reproducibility and quality

Energy use is of crucial importance for the global challenge of climate change, and also is an essential part of daily life. Hence, research on energy needs to be robust and valid. Other scientific disciplines have experienced a reproducibility crisis, i.e. existing findings could not be reproduced in new studies. The ‘TReQ’ approach is recommended to improve research practices in the energy field and arrive at greater transparency, reproducibility and quality. A highly adaptable suite of tools is presented that can be applied to energy research approaches across this multidisciplinary and fast-changing field. In particular, the following tools are introduced – preregistration of studies, making data and code publicly available, using preprints, and employing reporting guidelines – to heighten the standard of research practices within the energy field. The wider adoption of these tools can facilitate greater trust in the findings of research used to inform evidence-based policy and practice in the energy field

Knowing me, knowing you: the role of trust, locus of control and privacy concern in acceptance of domestic electricity demand-side response

Choosing to take part in a demand-side response (DSR) programme entails accepting external influence over one’s energy consumption patterns, such as through price or direct load control (DLC) signals. If participation is low, the programme will be ineffective. How might people’s perceptions of their relationship with the influencing entity affect the likelihood of participation? This study used a representative survey of Great Britain (N=2002) to explore the importance of trust, privacy concern and locus of control for acceptance of different approaches to influencing electricity consumption. Survey respondents were randomly shown a description of one of five DSR products (static time of use [TOU] tariff, static TOU with automated response to price changes, dynamic TOU, dynamic TOU with automated response, and DLC), framed as being offered by their electricity supplier. They then responded to a number of scales including those intended to measure trust in their supplier, privacy concern and locus of control. Controlling for demographic variables, trust in electricity supplier was significantly positively associated with acceptance of all tariffs, although the effect size was smaller for the automated TOU tariffs. The specific measure of trust in the supplier to ensure a reliable electricity supply was significantly negatively associated with acceptance of the dynamic TOU tariff. Privacy concern was significantly negatively associated with acceptance of all tariffs, with the strongest effect for the automated dynamic TOU tariff. Locus of control was a significant factor only in the case of DLC, where external locus was related to higher acceptance. These results suggest the existing low levels of trust in energy companies in the UK may present a challenge in securing uptake of DSR, and an opportunity to trusted entrants from other sectors. Automation within the home may mitigate trust concerns, but people must have confidence in the privacy of this arrangement. DLC may be viewed especially positively by people who currently perceive themselves to have little control over their energy use, but protections should be in place to ensure they are not exploited

Tailored emails prompt electric vehicle owners to engage with tariff switching information

The carbon intensity of the electricity used to charge an electric vehicle (EV) is dependent on when in the day charging occurs. However, persuading EV owners to adopt incentives to charge during off-peak hours is challenging. Here we show that governments could exploit the ‘window of opportunity’ created when people purchase their first EV to promote time-of-use tariffs. Email recipients (n = 7,038 EV owners) were more likely to click-through to an information webpage when the email emphasized specific reductions in home-charging costs versus general bill savings. However, the ‘window of opportunity’ for maximizing potential adoption is short; email open rates declined from over 70% immediately after purchase to 40% for recipients owning their EV for over three months. These results demonstrate the potential of prompts to change behaviours for which opt-out enrolment (where enrolment is automatic unless people explicitly opt out) would be unethical or less effective

Possible future impacts of elevated levels of atmospheric CO2 on human cognitive performance and on the design and operation of ventilation systems in buildings

This paper brings together a rapid evidence assessment of impacts of elevated CO2 concentrations on human cognition with IPCC projections of atmospheric CO2 concentration by the end of the present century, and an analysis of potential consequences of increased atmospheric CO2 concentrations for ventilation systems in buildings and other enclosed spaces. Whilst only limited research has been done on the effect of CO2 on cognition (as opposed to air quality in general), half of the studies reviewed indicate that human cognitive performance declines with increasing CO2concentrations. Hence, given the likelihood of increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration by the end of the 21st century, direct impacts of anthropogenic CO2 emissions on human cognitive performance may be unavoidable. Attempts to minimise these direct impacts are likely to result in significant indirect impacts on the engineering of ventilation systems and associated energy use in all enclosed spaces including buildings and transport systems. Practical application : This paper concerns what may well be one of the most important long-term drivers of the design, management, operation and regulation of ventilation systems over the remainder of the 21st century. It will be relevant to professionals, particularly at senior levels in the building industry

Public acceptability of domestic demand-side response in Great Britain: The role of automation and direct load control

Domestic demand-side response (DSR), if widely adopted, could help make electricity more secure, clean and affordable. However, little is known about consumer demand for different approaches to achieving DSR. This study aimed to gauge the acceptability of a range of DSR tariffs, and explore factors affecting it. An online between-subjects survey experiment was deployed to a representative sample of bill payers in Great Britain (N = 2002), testing five tariffs including static/dynamic time of use (TOU) pricing (with/without automated response to price changes) and direct load control (DLC) of heating on a below-average flat rate. The tariff permitting limited DLC of heating was significantly (p < .01) more popular than the TOU tariffs. This was surprising given evidence for concern around loss of control in DLC, and suggests that for many people DLC is acceptable in principle (within tight bounds and with override ability). The option of automated response made dynamic TOU (otherwise the least popular tariff) as acceptable as static TOU. This is important because dynamic TOU offers additional network benefits, while automation can improve duration and reliability of response. The TOU tariffs were rated highly for giving people control over spending on electricity, but other factors were more associated with overall acceptance

Exploring perceived control in domestic electricity demand-side response

Research into consumer acceptance of domestic electricity demand-side response (DSR) highlights loss of personal control as a key concern. This UK focus group study explored people's perceived control in relation to home energy use and DSR. Three DSR offerings were discussed: fixed and dynamic time of use (TOU) pricing and direct load control. Participants' main motivations for control were costs, comfort, time/flexibility and autonomy. The majority viewed a fixed TOU tariff as increasing personal control, particularly over costs. Dynamic TOU pricing divided opinion, with some perceiving more control over costs, while others were concerned about ease of use, requirement for automation, predictability and flexibility. Almost everyone saw direct load control as reducing their control, although some framed this only in terms of control over appliances, while others were concerned about their overall autonomy. Implications for future research and the design, targeting and communication of DSR products are discussed