Measurements of atmospheric electricity aloft

Measurements of the electrical characteristics of the atmosphere above the surface have been made for over 200 years, from a variety of different platforms, including kites, balloons, rockets and aircraft. From these measurements, a great deal of information about the electrical characteristics of the atmosphere has been gained, assisting our understanding of the global atmospheric electric circuit, thunderstorm electrification and lightning generation mechanisms, discovery of transient luminous events above thunderstorms, and many other electrical phenomena. This paper surveys the history of atmospheric electrical measurements aloft, from the earliest manned balloon ascents to current day observations with free balloons and aircraft. Measurements of atmospheric electrical parameters in a range of meteorological conditions are described, including clear air conditions, polluted conditions, non-thunderstorm clouds, and thunderstorm clouds, spanning a range of atmospheric conditions, from fair weather, to the most electrically active

Safety and antiviral activity of combination HIV-1 broadly neutralizing antibodies in viremic individuals

Monotherapy of HIV-1 infection with single antiretroviral agents is ineffective because error-prone HIV-1 replication leads to the production of drug-resistant viral variants(1,2). Combinations of drugs can establish long-term control, however, antiretroviral therapy (ART) requires daily dosing, can cause side effects and does not eradicate the infection(3,4). Although anti-HIV-1 antibodies constitute a potential alternative to ART(5,6), treatment of viremic individuals with a single antibody also results in emergence of resistant viral variants(7-9). Moreover, combinations of first-generation anti-HIV-1 broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) had little measurable effect on the infection(10-12). Here we report on a phase 1b clinical trial (NCT02825797) in which two potent bNAbs, 3BNC117(13) and 10-1074(14), were administered in combination to seven HIV-1 viremic individuals. Infusions of 30 mg kg(-1) of each of the antibodies were well-tolerated. In the four individuals with dual antibody-sensitive viruses, immunotherapy resulted in an average reduction in HIV-1 viral load of 2.05 log(10) copies per ml that remained significantly reduced for three months following the first of up to three infusions. In addition, none of these individuals developed resistance to both antibodies. Larger studies will be necessary to confirm the efficacy of antibody combinations in reducing HIV-1 viremia and limiting the emergence of resistant viral variants

The role of leptin and ghrelin in the regulation of food intake and body weight in humans: a review.

Leptin and ghrelin are two hormones that have been recognized to have a major influence on energy balance. Leptin is a mediator of long-term regulation of energy balance, suppressing food intake and thereby inducing weight loss. Ghrelin on the other hand is a fast-acting hormone, seemingly playing a role in meal initiation. As a growing number of people suffer from obesity, understanding the mechanisms by which various hormones and neurotransmitters have influence on energy balance has been a subject of intensive research. In obese subjects the circulating level of the anorexigenic hormone leptin is increased, whereas surprisingly, the level of the orexigenic hormone ghrelin is decreased. It is now established that obese patients are leptin-resistant. However, the manner in which both the leptin and ghrelin systems contribute to the development or maintenance of obesity is as yet not clear. The purpose of this review is to provide background information on the leptin and ghrelin hormones, their role in food intake and body weight in humans, and their mechanism of action. Possible abnormalities in the leptin and ghrelin systems that may contribute to the development of obesity will be mentioned. In addition, the potentials of leptin and ghrelin as drug targets will be discussed. Finally, the influence of the diet on leptin and ghrelin secretion and functioning will be described. © 2006 The Authors