Motor Protein KIF1A Is Essential for Hippocampal Synaptogenesis and Learning Enhancement in an Enriched Environment

SummaryEnvironmental enrichment causes a variety of effects on brain structure and function. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays an important role in enrichment-induced neuronal changes; however, the precise mechanism underlying these effects remains uncertain. In this study, a specific upregulation of kinesin superfamily motor protein 1A (KIF1A) was observed in the hippocampi of mice kept in an enriched environment and, in hippocampal neurons in vitro, BDNF increased the levels of KIF1A and of KIF1A-mediated cargo transport. Analysis of Bdnf+/− and Kif1a+/− mice revealed that a lack of KIF1A upregulation resulted in a loss of enrichment-induced hippocampal synaptogenesis and learning enhancement. Meanwhile, KIF1A overexpression promoted synaptogenesis via the formation of presynaptic boutons. These findings demonstrate that KIF1A is indispensable for BDNF-mediated hippocampal synaptogenesis and learning enhancement induced by enrichment. This is a new molecular motor-mediated presynaptic mechanism underlying experience-dependent neuroplasticity

Three-dimensional structures of the flagellar dynein–microtubule complex by cryoelectron microscopy

The outer dynein arms (ODAs) of the flagellar axoneme generate forces needed for flagellar beating. Elucidation of the mechanisms underlying the chemomechanical energy conversion by the dynein arms and their orchestrated movement in cilia/flagella is of great importance, but the nucleotide-dependent three-dimensional (3D) movement of dynein has not yet been observed. In this study, we establish a new method for reconstructing the 3D structure of the in vitro reconstituted ODA–microtubule complex and visualize nucleotide-dependent conformational changes using cryoelectron microscopy and image analysis. As the complex went from the rigor state to the relaxed state, the head domain of the β heavy chain shifted by 3.7 nm toward the B tubule and inclined 44° inwards. These observations suggest that there is a mechanism that converts head movement into the axonemal sliding motion

Antioxidant Signaling Involving the Microtubule Motor KIF12 Is an Intracellular Target of Nutrition Excess in Beta Cells

SummaryBeta cell injury due to oxidative stress is a typical etiology of diabetes caused by nutritional excess, but its precise mechanism remains largely elusive. Here, we demonstrate that the microtubule motor KIF12 mediates an antioxidant cascade in beta cells as an intracellular target of excess fat intake or “lipotoxicity.” KIF12 knockout mice suffer from hypoinsulinemic glucose intolerance due to increased beta cell oxidative stress. Using this model, we identified an antioxidant signaling cascade involving KIF12 as a scaffold for the transcription factor Sp1. The stabilization of nascent Sp1 appeared to be essential for proper peroxisomal function by enhancing Hsc70 expression, and the pharmacological induction of Hsc70 expression with teprenone counteracted the oxidative stress. Because KIF12 is transcriptionally downregulated by chronic exposure to fatty acids, this antioxidant cascade involving KIF12 and Hsc70 is proposed to be a critical target of nutritional excess in beta cells in diabetes

Defects in Axonal Elongation and Neuronal Migration in Mice with Disrupted tau and map1b Genes

Tau and MAP1B are the main members of neuronal microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs), the functions of which have remained obscure because of a putative functional redundancy (Harada, A., K. Oguchi, S. Okabe, J. Kuno, S. Terada, T. Ohshima, R. SatoYoshitake, Y. Takei, T. Noda, and N. Hirokawa. 1994. Nature. 369:488–491; Takei, Y., S. Kondo, A. Harada, S. Inomata, T. Noda, and N. Hirokawa. 1997. J. Cell Biol. 137:1615–1626). To unmask the role of these proteins, we generated double-knockout mice with disrupted tau and map1b genes and compared their phenotypes with those of single-knockout mice. In the analysis of mice with a genetic background of predominantly C57Bl/6J, a hypoplastic commissural axon tract and disorganized neuronal layering were observed in the brains of the tau +/+map1b-/-mice. These phenotypes are markedly more severe in tau -/-map1b-/-double mutants, indicating that tau and MAP1B act in a synergistic fashion. Primary cultures of hippocampal neurons from tau -/-map1b-/-mice showed inhibited axonal elongation. In these cells, a generation of new axons via bundling of microtubules at the neck of the growth cones appeared to be disturbed. Cultured cerebellar neurons from tau -/-map1b-/-mice showed delayed neuronal migration concomitant with suppressed neurite elongation. These findings indicate the cooperative functions of tau and MAP1B in vivo in axonal elongation and neuronal migration as regulators of microtubule oganization

MAP2 is required for dendrite elongation, PKA anchoring in dendrites, and proper PKA signal transduction

Microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2) is a major component of cross-bridges between microtubules in dendrites, and is known to stabilize microtubules. MAP2 also has a binding domain for the regulatory subunit II of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA). We found that there is reduction in microtubule density in dendrites and a reduction of dendritic length in MAP2-deficient mice. Moreover, there is a significant reduction of various subunits of PKA in dendrites and total amounts of various PKA subunits in hippocampal tissue and cultured neurons. In MAP2-deficient cultured neurons, the induction rate of phosphorylated CREB after forskolin stimulation was much lower than in wild-type neurons. Therefore, MAP2 is an anchoring protein of PKA in dendrites, whose loss leads to reduced amount of dendritic and total PKA and reduced activation of CREB

The Cytoskeletal Architecture of the Presynaptic Terminal and Molecular Structure of Synapsin 1

We have examined the cytoskeletal architecture and its relationship with synaptic vesicles in synapses by quick-freeze deep-etch electron microscopy (QF.DE). The main cytoskeletal elements in the presynaptic terminals (neuromuscular junction, electric organ, and cerebellar cortex) were actin filaments and microtubules. The actin filaments formed a network and frequently were associated closely with the presynaptic plasma membranes and active zones. Short, linking strands approximately 30 nm long were found between actin and synaptic vesicles, between microtubules and synaptic vesicles. Fine strands (30-60 nm) were also found between synaptic vesicles. Frequently spherical structures existed in the middle of the strands between synaptic vesicles. Another kind of strand (approximately 100 nm long, thinner than the actin filaments) between synaptic vesicles and plasma membranes was also observed. We have examined the molecular structure of synapsin 1 and its relationship with actin filaments, microtubules, and synaptic vesicles in vitro using the low angle rotary shadowing technique and QF.DE. The synapsin 1, approximately 47 nm long, was composed of a head (approximately 14 nm diam) and a tail (approximately 33 nm long), having a tadpole-like appearance. The high resolution provided by QF.DE revealed that a single synapsin 1 cross-linked actin filaments and linked actin filaments with synaptic vesicles, forming approximately 30-nm short strands. The head was on the actin and the tail was attached to the synaptic vesicle or actin filament. Microtubules were also cross-linked by a single synapsin 1, which also connected a microtubule to synaptic vesicles, forming approximately 30 nm strands. The spherical head was on the microtubules and the tail was attached to the synaptic vesicles or to microtubules. Synaptic vesicles incubated with synapsin 1 were linked with each other via fine short fibrils and frequently we identified spherical structures from which two or three fibril radiated and cross-linked synaptic vesicles. We have examined the localization of synapsin 1 using ultracryomicrotomy and colloidal gold-immunocytochemistry of anti-synapsin 1 IgG. Synapsin 1 was exclusively localized in the regions occupied by synaptic vesicles. Statistical analyses indicated that synapsin 1 is located mostly at least approximately 30 nm away from the presynaptic membrane. These data derived via three different approaches suggest that synapsin 1 could be a main element of short linkages between actin filaments and synaptic vesicles, and between microtubules and synaptic vesicles, and between synaptic vesicles in the nerve terminals.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS