Tributary Glacier Surges: An Exceptional Concentration at Panmah Glacier, Karakoram Himalaya

Four tributaries of Panmah Glacier have surged in less than a decade, three in quick succession between 2001 and 2005. Since 1985, 13 surges have been recorded in the Karakoram Himalaya, more than in any comparable period since the 1850s. Ten were tributary surges. In these ten a full run-out of surge ice is prevented, but extended post-surge episodes affect the tributary and main glacier. The sudden concentration of events at Panmah Glacier is without precedent and at odds with known surge intervals for the glaciers. Interpretations must consider the response of thermally complex glaciers, at exceptionally high altitudes and of high relief, to changes in a distinctive regional climate. It is suggested that high-altitude warming affecting snow and glacier thermal regimes, or bringing intense, short-term melting episodes, may be more significant than mass-balance change

The Karakoram Anomaly? Glacier Expansion and the ‘Elevation Effect,’ Karakoram Himalaya

In the late 1990s widespread evidence of glacier expansion was found in the central Karakoram, in contrast to a worldwide decline of mountain glaciers. The expansions were almost exclusively in glacier basins from the highest parts of the range and developed quickly after decades of decline. Exceptional numbers of glacier surges were also reported. Unfortunately, there has been no on-going measurement of climatic or glaciological variables at these elevations. The present article examines possible explanations for this seemingly anomalous behavior, using evidence from short-term monitoring programs, low-altitude weather stations, and the distinctive environmental characteristics of the region. The latter involve interactions between regional air mass climatology, its seasonality, topoclimate or ‘verticality’ effects on glaciers with extreme altitudinal range, climatic sensitivities of heavy versus thin supraglacial debris, and complex temperature distributions in ice masses with ice falls throughout critical elevations. Valley climate stations indicate increases in precipitation over the past 50 years and small declines in summer temperatures, which may indicate positive trends in glacier mass balance. However, the suddenness of the expansions is problematic, as is their confinement to glaciers from the highest watersheds while others continue to retreat. Thermal shifts in ice masses with extreme altitude ranges may be even more critical, leading to an accelerated redistribution of ice mass by elevation

Glacier Change, Concentration, and Elevation Effects in the Karakoram Himalaya, Upper Indus Basin

In recent decades the consequences of climate change for Himalayan glaciers has become of great concern. Glaciers in much of High Asia appear to be declining, some at globally extreme rates (Ageta 2001;Oerlemanns 2001). It had been widely reported that the Indus basin is threatened with severe losses. However, emerging evidence suggests that such reports were, at best, exaggerated (Raina 2009;Armstrong 2010). Several inquiries have concluded that the behavior of Karakoram glaciers differs from those in the rest of the Himalaya and from the more intensively studied European and North American glaciers (Mayewski and Jeschke 1979; Kick 1989; Shroder et al 1993). If so, it suggests conditions exist that distinguish Karakoramglacier environments.Here attention is directed to high-altitude snowfall and nourishment regimes, glacier typology, and “verticality,” especially the role of rockwalls, avalanches, and related conditions above 4000 m elevation—hitherto rather neglected concerns. What can reasonably be deduced about the distribution of terrain and conditions in Karakoram glacier basins from cartographic and satellite imagery is examined as well as how these factors relate to available high-elevation snowfall data. These reveal a distinctive combination of conditions that lead to a strong spatial concentration and intensification of glacier nourishment. They explain and add to the significance of what have been termed “Turkestan”- and “Mustagh”-type glaciers that prevail in the Karakoram. Certain differences emerge, compared with other High Asian mountains, which may explain the seemingly anomalous response to global climate change. However, it is important, first, to be aware of glacier change in the region and that it involves a far from simple picture of advances and retreats: Current knowledge is limited by the fact that most reports are of changes in termini, sometimes ice-tongue thicknesses at their lowest elevations. One must be cautious in inferring what this can tell us about the vast glacier areas up above

Proving Grounds of Urbicide: Civil and Urban Perspectives on the Bombing of Capital Cities

In the bombing of urban settlements, the main impacts have been on resident civilians, living space and non-military functions. This is shown in the bombing of London, Berlin and Tokyo in the Second World War, arguably the first and only serious tests of strategic air power and urbicide to determine war outcomes. The history and scope of raiding of these capital cities differed in many ways, but the civilian experience and urban implications were very similar. The bombings attacked the most vulnerable areas, where resident populations found themselves poorly protected at best. The intentions, as well as results, of the raiding are examples of urbicide, planned to kill indiscriminately and destroy all elements of urban existence. Yet, a disarticulation emerges between the political, industrial and war-controlling functions of the capitals, which the bombing was supposed to disable but could not, and the plight of their citizens. The bombing was encouraged as ‘spectacular violence’, even though militarily inconclusive and, in seeking to avoid combat while terrorising non-combatants, it experimented with an approach to armed violence that would prevail after 1945. Despite enormous changes since 1945, the plight of bombed civilians has changed little

Studies in the geomorphology of the mountain regions of the Upper Indus basin

The investigation primarily concerns contemporary geomorphological features and processes in the Upper Indus Basin, Past work, and theories of the denudation chronology of the region are described, and the broad climatic and geological setting. The bulk of the work examines characteristics of weathering, slopes and mass-movements, glacial and fluvial features in the Biafo Gyang area of the Central Karakoram. The nature and role of glacier surges and natural damming in the region are discussed. An effort is also made to support the central theme with background information and visual illustration not normally available, and a comprehensive regional bibliography is provided. Weathering processes show an intimate interaction of chemical decay, salt weathering, frost action and primary mechanical failure of rock, A variety of forms is produced from tafoni to exfoliation structures, while weathering products are mainly angular with little clay fraction. This seems mainly due to rapid rates of removal which preclude advanced decay. Slopes are steep, most of the Biafo Basin area exceeding 45° of angle. This, large upslope variations in climate and lack of vegetation promote vigorous mass -movements and varied slope deposits. The Biafo Gyang Glacier is one of many enormous valley glaciers in the region, and is of the Firn-Stream type, The ablation zone has extensive covers of moraine and large flanking kame terraces. There is a short, vigorous melt season and marked resurgence of the glacier margins and terminus in winter. Above the Biafo the Braldu River flows in a wide belt of valley train, but plunges into a deep gorge with huge terraces and rock walls below the glacier\u27s entry. 80% of the Upper Indus rivers\u27 discharge occurs in three months of the year and over 90% of the sediment transport. Extreme erosional events play an important role in the region, special significance attaching to the many natural dams and dam-burst floods. Overall, the orographic effect tends to express itself by promoting short-lived, high energy erosional events

Glacier Change, Concentration, and Elevation Effects in the Karakoram Himalaya, Upper Indus Basin

In recent decades the consequences of climate change for Himalayan glaciers has become of great concern. Glaciers in much of High Asia appear to be declining, some at globally extreme rates (Ageta 2001;Oerlemanns 2001). It had been widely reported that the Indus basin is threatened with severe losses. However, emerging evidence suggests that such reports were, at best, exaggerated (Raina 2009;Armstrong 2010). Several inquiries have concluded that the behavior of Karakoram glaciers differs from those in the rest of the Himalaya and from the more intensively studied European and North American glaciers (Mayewski and Jeschke 1979; Kick 1989; Shroder et al 1993). If so, it suggests conditions exist that distinguish Karakoramglacier environments.Here attention is directed to high-altitude snowfall and nourishment regimes, glacier typology, and “verticality,” especially the role of rockwalls, avalanches, and related conditions above 4000 m elevation—hitherto rather neglected concerns. What can reasonably be deduced about the distribution of terrain and conditions in Karakoram glacier basins from cartographic and satellite imagery is examined as well as how these factors relate to available high-elevation snowfall data. These reveal a distinctive combination of conditions that lead to a strong spatial concentration and intensification of glacier nourishment. They explain and add to the significance of what have been termed “Turkestan”- and “Mustagh”-type glaciers that prevail in the Karakoram. Certain differences emerge, compared with other High Asian mountains, which may explain the seemingly anomalous response to global climate change. However, it is important, first, to be aware of glacier change in the region and that it involves a far from simple picture of advances and retreats: Current knowledge is limited by the fact that most reports are of changes in termini, sometimes ice-tongue thicknesses at their lowest elevations. One must be cautious in inferring what this can tell us about the vast glacier areas up above

Studies in the geomorphology of the mountain regions of the Upper Indus basin

The investigation primarily concerns contemporary geomorphological features and processes in the Upper Indus Basin, Past work, and theories of the denudation chronology of the region are described, and the broad climatic and geological setting. The bulk of the work examines characteristics of weathering, slopes and mass-movements, glacial and fluvial features in the Biafo Gyang area of the Central Karakoram. The nature and role of glacier surges and natural damming in the region are discussed. An effort is also made to support the central theme with background information and visual illustration not normally available, and a comprehensive regional bibliography is provided. Weathering processes show an intimate interaction of chemical decay, salt weathering, frost action and primary mechanical failure of rock, A variety of forms is produced from tafoni to exfoliation structures, while weathering products are mainly angular with little clay fraction. This seems mainly due to rapid rates of removal which preclude advanced decay. Slopes are steep, most of the Biafo Basin area exceeding 45° of angle. This, large upslope variations in climate and lack of vegetation promote vigorous mass -movements and varied slope deposits. The Biafo Gyang Glacier is one of many enormous valley glaciers in the region, and is of the Firn-Stream type, The ablation zone has extensive covers of moraine and large flanking kame terraces. There is a short, vigorous melt season and marked resurgence of the glacier margins and terminus in winter. Above the Biafo the Braldu River flows in a wide belt of valley train, but plunges into a deep gorge with huge terraces and rock walls below the glacier\u27s entry. 80% of the Upper Indus rivers\u27 discharge occurs in three months of the year and over 90% of the sediment transport. Extreme erosional events play an important role in the region, special significance attaching to the many natural dams and dam-burst floods. Overall, the orographic effect tends to express itself by promoting short-lived, high energy erosional events

Rethinking risk and disasters in mountain areas

This chapter presents a view of risk and disaster in the mountains that finds them fully a part of public safety issues in modern states and developments, rather than separated from them. This contrasts with prevailing approaches to disaster focused on natural hazards, “unscheduled” or extreme events, and emergency preparedness; approaches strongly reinforced by mountain stereotypes. Rather, we find the legacies of social and economic histories, especially relations to down-country or metropolitan actors, are decisive in shaping contemporary “mountain realities”. Developments in transportation, resource extraction and tourism that serve state and international agendas can increase rather than reduce risks for mountain populations, and undermine pre-existing strategies to minimise environmental dangers. Above all, we see rapid urbanisation in mountains generally and the Himalaya in particular as highly implicated in exacerbating risks and creating new types of vulnerabilities. Enforced displacement, and concentration of people in urban agglomerations, is a major part of the modern history of mountain lands that invites more careful exploration. Rapid expansion of built environments and infrastructure, without due regard to hazards and structural safety, introduce new and complex risks, while altering older equations with and to the land and sapping people’s resilience. In the lives of mountain people, environmental hazards are mostly subordinate to other, societal sources of risk and vulnerability, and to the insecurities these involve. Basically we conclude that “marginalisation” of mountain lands is primarily an outcome of socio-economic developments in which their condition is subordinated to strategic planning by state, metropolitan and global actors.Cet article aborde la question des risques et des catastrophes en montagne. Il vise non pas à dissocier mais plutôt à replacer ces concepts au cœur des questions de sécurité publique et de développement des États contemporains. Cette approche des catastrophes se distingue des précédentes, pourtant considérablement renforcées par les stéréotypes habituels, propres à l’environnement montagnard. De fait, celles-ci étaient jusqu’alors centrées sur l’aléa naturel, sur son caractère extrême et imprévisible, ainsi que sur la réponse post-catastrophe (phase d’urgence). La prise en compte d’autres facteurs apparaît nécessaire. Les héritages des histoires économique et sociale des territoires montagnards, et, plus particulièrement, les relations tissées avec les acteurs métropolitains et le reste du pays, contribuent, de manière décisive, à façonner la réalité contemporaine des montagnes. Le développement des transports, l’extraction de ressources et le tourisme, qui profitent à l’État et s’inscrivent dans la tendance internationale, peuvent paradoxalement accroître le risque pour les populations montagnardes et saper les stratégies préexistantes destinées à réduire le risque environnemental. Plus que tout, l’urbanisation rapide des montagnes en général, et de l’Himalaya en particulier, a largement contribué à intensifier les risques et à créer de nouvelles formes de vulnérabilités. La majeure partie de l’histoire actuelle des montagnes reste influencée par les déplacements contraints de population et la densification des centres urbains. Cela doit faire l’objet d’une analyse particulière. L’expansion rapide du bâti et des infrastructures, mis à part la sécurité de ces structures, engendre des risques nouveaux et complexes et détériore parallèlement le rapport habituel des hommes à leurs terres, en dégradant ainsi la capacité de résilience des individus. Dans la vie quotidienne des peuples montagnards, les catastrophes environnementales sont bien souvent dépendantes d’autres formes sociales de risque, de vulnérabilité et d’une insécurité corollaire. Pour conclure, la marginalisation des espaces montagnards reste avant tout la conséquence du développement socio-économique de ces territoires, dont les paramètres dépendent des stratégies de développement de l’État et des acteurs métropolitains et internationaux