Personal traits predict conservationists’ optimism about outcomes for nature

In the face of unprecedented biodiversity loss, the belief that conservation goals can be met could play an important role in ensuring they are fulfilled. We asked conservationists how optimistic they felt about key biodiversity outcomes over the next 10 years; 2341 people familiar with conservation in 144 countries responded. Respondents expressed optimism that enabling conditions for conservation would improve but felt pressures would continue, and the state of biodiversity was unlikely to get better. Respondents with greater general optimism about life, at early-career stages, and working in practice and policy (compared to academia) reported higher conservation optimism. But most of our biodiversity and conservation status indicators were not associated with conservation optimism. Unbounded optimism without appropriate action would be misguided in the face of growing threats to biodiversity. However, supporting those struggling to see the light at the end of the tunnel could help sustain efforts to overcome these threats

Seeing beyond the smoke: smallholder farming in Papua New Guinea in a changing world

Smallholder farming plays a crucial role in sustaining the food security and livelihoods of billions of people. Rapid social-ecological changes, including population growth, climate change and the incursion of external actors, are affecting smallholder farmers. In this thesis, I evaluate the changing social-ecological system of smallholder farming, and how interventions can support farmers to respond, using a case study in Papua New Guinea (PNG). I focused my research on swidden cultivation (a type of smallholder farming). In PNG, the vast majority of the population depends on swidden agriculture, but current social-ecological changes are posing risks to farmers’ well-being and environmental sustainability. Land tenure is relatively secure in PNG, making it worthwhile for swidden farmers to invest in solutions that allow them to respond to these changes. PNG is thus a unique and highly relevant site to study swidden agriculture in a changing world. I used an interdisciplinary research approach to address the aims of my thesis. I started by investigating which factors may limit crops yields in swidden fields. Insect pests and seedeaters often negatively affect crops. I quantified foliar herbivory and seed disturbance (ecosystem disservices) and pest predation (an ecosystem service) in swidden fields along an elevational gradient. I found that the level of pest-related ecosystem disservices was relatively low compared to global levels, with foliar herbivory averaging 0.99%, disturbance of large seeds averaging 3.9% and disturbance of small seeds averaging 68%. The level of the ecosystem service, on the other hand, was relatively high with pest predation averaging 6.4%. Rapid and ongoing social-ecological changes, including increasing land shortages and climate change, may change these favourable patterns. Current farming practices, including establishing gardens close to forests, burning fields at the start of the cropping season and planting a variety of crops, are likely to be enhancing pest-related ecosystem services and reducing disservices. These practices may therefore form the basis for designing future interventions for optimising biotic pest control in swidden agricultural systems. Another major limiting factor in many agricultural systems is soil quality. I investigated whether locally available fertilisers could enhance soil quality and crop yields. I established ten experimental fields on the land of swidden farmers. Three locally available fertilisers, including compost consisting of decaying banana peels, chicken manure and NPK fertiliser, were applied to different plots within each field, and soil quality and sweet potato yields were tracked over a year. In my study site, fertilisers that increased the level of available nitrogen and reduced soil moisture enhanced crop yields. For example, chicken manure increased yields by 16% and NPK fertiliser by 47%. So improving soil quality through applying fertilisers may be one way in which farmers could navigate increasing land shortages as a result of growing populations. When identifying agricultural practices that may allow swidden farmers to respond to social-ecological changes, it is crucial to understand which interventions are welcomed by farmers. I evaluated which soil management practices farmers adopted and how information on them disseminated through the village's social network by conducting interviews at the beginning and end of the research project. I found that practices that bore resemblance to existing practices, such as applying compost, were more likely to be adopted than practices that required additional information and materials, such as applying chicken manure and NPK fertiliser. I also showed that people created meaning from the research in unexpected ways; farmers started to mulch, and to plant the specific variety of sweet potato that was used in the experimental fields, even though I did not aim to test the effect of mulching or promote any crop variety. The project also had another unintentional effect in that it changed the community’s social network, with local research assistants becoming more sought-after for advice, and knowledge about the research project not flowing far from initial recipients. This shows that projects can have impacts beyond their original objectives. Enhancing our understanding of intended and unintended outcomes can improve our understanding of what interventions are useful to farmers, and how they might affect the social-ecological system of a swidden farming village. Finally, there is a need to better understand what farmers themselves see as opportunities and challenges for their future. This is important because of the intrinsic importance of public participation, and because it can help produce more appropriate and sustainable adaptation plans. In collaboration with local farmers in PNG, I conducted a participatory photography project in which we explored local perspectives on resource management, drivers of change and adaptive strategies. Farmers highlighted that the main challenges they face included crop diseases of their cash crops, land shortages and lack of training. Farmers saw collaboration and education as key to their future as it would allow them to better manage their land and diversify their livelihoods. So there is a need to improve the wider context in which swidden farmers work, beyond increasing and intensifying yields. Research and planning processes that aim to support swidden farmers to respond to social-ecological changes should incorporate farmers’ priorities. Overall, my work shows how social-ecological changes are influencing farmers in PNG, and what interventions can help people navigate these changes. The results provide evidence for how swidden farming can continue to be a viable and sustainable way of living, now and in the future

Sustainable Land Use for Smallholder Farming Communities in Papua New Guinea

Combining agricultural production with biodiversity conservation is one of the main challenges of the 21st century. This issue is especially urgent in Papua New Guinea (PNG): 85% of PNG’s population depends on shifting agriculture, and the rapid population growth is causing a need for increased food production. At the same time PNG’s tropical forest hosts 5-10% of the world’s biodiversity. Subsistence agriculture is already a major driver of deforestation in PNG. Smallholder farming communities in PNG play an essential role in ensuring food security and biodiversity conservation, because 85% of the land is under customary land tenure. Currently there is a major knowledge gap with regards to how land in PNG can best be managed to produce the food required, while at the same time safeguarding the environment, in the context of population growth and climate change. The aim of my research project is to contribute to the scientific understanding of agricultural production and biodiversity conservation in PNG, and use the information to engage in land use planning exercises with smallholder farming communities in which it is examined how agriculture and biodiversity conservation can best be combined in the context of social- and ecological change. To achieve this aim I have conducted fieldwork in different smallholder farming communities based along an elevational gradient in PNG. I performed an ecological survey which examined how herbivory and disease influence current crop yield in smallholder systems in PNG, and what farming practices influence these ecological processes. Results indicate that surrounding a crop field with trees and increasing crop diversity may reduce herbivore- and pathogen damage. In addition, I conducted a social survey which looked at natural resource use and willingness to change current farming practices. Results show that farmers are willing to change their practices. This Feburary I will again perform ecological and social surveys in PNG. This time I will investigate whether using soil enhancement techniques could be a feasible option to enhance agricultural production. Future fieldwork will focus on understanding the effect of forest fragmentation in PNG on ecological functioning of the primary forest. I will also explore options that would enable local communities to balance the need for both enhanced food production and biodiversity conservation on their land in a sustainable manner, in the context of a dynamic social-ecological system. On the ECCB I would like to present the results of my ecological and social surveys that I conducted so far. This means that my presentation will focus on how agricultural production by smallholder farming communities in PNG could be enhanced in a sustainable way.peerReviewe

The times are changing: understanding past, current and future resource use in rural Papua New Guinea using participatory photography

There is a need to include local people’s voices in research and planning processes to better understand what they see as opportunities and challenges for their future. This is necessary because of the intrinsic importance of public participation, and because it can help produce more useful and implementable adaptation plans. We apply participatory photography in a Papua New Guinean smallholder farming community to explore local perspectives on resource management, drivers of change and adaptive strategies. Twenty-four farmers of different clans, genders and ages took photos of items important to their livelihoods, focusing separately on the past, present and future. We discussed the photos and their meanings in individual and group interviews, encouraging farmers to lead the conversations. Results show that farmers are shifting from relying mainly on natural capitals to using financial, social and physical capitals, and that this causes changes in people’s well-being. Villagers see cash crop diseases, land shortages and lack of training as their main challenges. So far, people have adapted to changes by shifting to crop species that still yield well, and setting up small businesses and projects to have additional sources of income. Farmers see education as key to their future as it would allow for better land management and diversification of livelihoods. The participatory photography process provided triangulation of scientific studies, gave insights into farmers’ perceptions, and highlighted adaptive strategies and the complexities of realising them. Overall, the results can be used in future research and planning processes in Papua New Guinea

The times are changing: understanding past, current and future resource use in rural Papua New Guinea using participatory photography

There is a need to include local people’s voices in research and planning processes to better understand what they see as opportunities and challenges for their future. This is necessary because of the intrinsic importance of public participation, and because it can help produce more useful and implementable adaptation plans.We apply participatory photography in a Papua New Guinean smallholder farming community to explore local perspectives on resource management, drivers of change and adaptive strategies.Twenty-four farmers of different clans, genders and ages took photos of items important to their livelihoods, focusing separately on the past, present and future. We discussed the photos and their meanings in individual and group interviews, encouraging farmers to lead the conversations.Results show that farmers are shifting from relying mainly on natural capitals to using financial, social and physical capitals, and that this causes changes in people’s well-being. Villagers see cash crop diseases, land shortages and lack of training as their main challenges. So far, people have adapted to changes by shifting to crop species that still yield well, and setting up small businesses and projects to have additional sources of income. Farmers see education as key to their future as it would allow for better land management and diversification of livelihoods.The participatory photography process provided triangulation of scientific studies, gave insights into farmers’ perceptions, and highlighted adaptive strategies and the complexities of realising them. Overall, the results can be used in future research and planning processes in Papua New Guinea.<br/

Ethical Publishing in Biodiversity Conservation Science

For many researchers, particularly in academia, publishing in peer-reviewed journals is a necessity, with major implications for their career progression. Yet, it is increasingly recognised that the current scientific publishing model is not fair and equitable, which can have severe consequences for the way science is accessed and used in nature conservation. We evaluated the publishing model of 426 conservation science journals against the Fair Open Access (FOA) principles. Two-thirds of journals, together publishing nearly half of all articles, complied with only two or fewer FOA principles. Only twenty journals (5%), publishing 485 articles per year (<1%), complied with all five principles. We uncovered a weak negative correlation between journal impact factor and the number of FOA principles fulfilled. Lastly, we found that Elsevier, Wiley, Taylor & Francis, and Springer represented 48% of all journals, but 80% of the 25 journals with the highest impact factor. Our results show that conservation science journals largely fail to meet the FOA standards. Conservation researchers are likely to face obstacles such as limited access to published literature, high publishing charges, and lack of ownership of their research outputs

Quantifying unintended effects of an agroecological research project on farmers' practices and social network in Papua New Guinea

1. Agroecological researchers and advocates often make assumptions about the social impact and dissemination of their work: researchers may assume that their work has impact through postresearch dissemination, while advocates may assume that new agroecological practices can be effectively spread through existing social networks. 2. Here, we test these assumptions by quantifying the effects of an agroecological research project on farming practices and the social network in a village community in Papua New Guinea. The project aimed to test the effect of applying banana peel compost, chicken manure and NPK fertiliser on sweet potato yields. Local farmers were involved in the research as project garden owners or research assistants. Using stochastic actor-oriented modelling, we tracked changes in farming practices and the social network. 3. Over the course of the research project, more people started to use food waste on their farms, while animal manure and NPK fertiliser were not frequently adopted. Farmers also took up practices that were not directly researched, such as mulching and planting the specific variety of sweet potato that was used in the project. This suggests that local farmers created meaning from the project, despite the researchers not intending to give advice until the end of the project. 4. The research project also affected the community's social network. Research assistants became more often sought-after for advice, while knowledge about the project did not flow far from those directly involved. These results indicate that who gets involved in a project may have social consequences, and show the importance of understanding existing social networks before they are relied upon for spreading farming practices. 5. Overall, this work challenges often-held assumptions about the social impact and dissemination of agroecological research, provides insights into the types of agricultural innovations more likely to be accepted among farmers, and explores how new practices may most effectively be promoted within a community

Quantifying unintended effects of an agroecological research project on farmers’ practices and social network in Papua New Guinea

1.Agroecological researchers and advocates often make assumptions about the social impact and dissemination of their work: researchers may assume that their work has impact through post-research dissemination, while advocates may assume that new agroecological practices can be effectively spread through existing social networks.2.Here we test these assumptions by quantifying the effects of an agroecological research project on farming practices and the social network in a village community in Papua New Guinea. The project aimed to test the effect of applying banana peel compost, chicken manure and NPK fertiliser on sweet potato yields. Local farmers were involved in the research as project garden owners or research assistants. Using stochastic actor-oriented modelling, we tracked changes in farming practices and the social network. 3.Over the course of the research project, more people started to use food waste on their farms, while animal manure and NPK fertiliser were not frequently adopted. Farmers also took up practices that were not directly researched, such as mulching and planting the specific variety of sweet potato that was used in the project. This suggests that local farmers created meaning from the project, despite the researchers not intending to give advice until the end of the project. 4.The research project also affected the community’s social network. Research assistants became more often sought-after for advice, while knowledge about the project did not flow far from those directly involved. These results indicate that who gets involved in a project may have social consequences, and show the importance of understanding existing social networks before they are relied upon for spreading farming practices. 5.Overall, this work challenges often-held assumptions about the social impact and dissemination of agroecological research, provides insights into the types of agricultural innovations more likely to be accepted among farmers, and explores how new practices may most effectively be promoted within a community.<br/

Using locally available fertilisers to enhance the yields of swidden farmers in Papua New Guinea

Context Swidden agriculture (a type of small-scale agriculture) is crucial to the livelihood and food security of millions of people in tropical regions. Social-ecological changes, including population growth and anti-swidden policies, are putting pressure on the existing swidden system to increase agricultural productivity in a sustainable way. Enhancing soil fertility is a promising option for increasing crop yields and extending lifetimes of agricultural fields, thereby reducing the demand to clear new land. However, there is limited information on how swidden farmers can best maintain soil fertility. Objective Our aim was to investigate whether using locally available fertilisers can increase soil quality, crop yields and lifetimes of swidden fields. Methods We established experimental gardens on the land of swidden farmers in the Lowlands of Papua New Guinea, where the majority of the population depends on swidden agriculture. Gardens were set up on two types of sites; five were established on new sites that had just been prepared for gardening by cutting and burning vegetation after a fallow period, whereas another five were prepared on garden sites that were just being fallowed. We applied three treatments; i) compost consisting of decaying banana peels, ii) chicken manure, and iii) NPK fertiliser to different plots within each garden; and tracked soil quality and yields of sweet potato over 12 months (three post-intervention cropping periods). We also conducted in-depth interviews with local farmers to understand their perspective on soil management. Results and conclusions Few farmers typically used compost, chicken manure or NPK fertiliser. Many were keen to try these fertilisers, provided they had more information. The performance of treatments depended on the type of garden with chicken manure increasing tuber yields in fallowed gardens but not new gardens, and banana peel compost also increasing tuber yields in fallowed gardens although not significantly. NPK fertiliser was the best option because it was the only fertiliser that increased yields in both new and fallowed gardens, produced tubers of similar quality and taste to control plots and was financially profitable. Treatments affected yield through increasing available nitrogen and reducing soil moisture. We also found that farmers fallow their gardens despite adequate sweet potato yields, so whether using fertilisers can enhance the lifetime of fields will depend on additional factors such as labour input needed. Significance Our work shows how swidden agriculture can potentially be adapted so that it continues to be a sustainable way of farming and living