The IRX-β\beta relation: Insights from simulations

We study the relationship between the UV continuum slope and infrared excess (IRX$\equiv L_{\rm IR}/L_{\rm FUV}$) predicted by performing dust radiative transfer on a suite of hydrodynamical simulations of galaxies. Our suite includes both isolated disk galaxies and mergers intended to be representative of galaxies at both $z \sim 0$ and $z \sim 2-3$. Our low-redshift isolated disks and mergers often populate a region around the the locally calibrated \citet[][M99]{M99} relation but move well above the relation during merger-induced starbursts. Our high-redshift simulated galaxies are blue and IR-luminous, which makes them lie above the M99 relation. The value of UV continuum slope strongly depends on the dust type used in the radiative transfer calculations: Milky Way-type dust leads to significantly more negative (bluer) slopes compared with Small Magellanic Cloud-type dust. The effect on $\beta$ due to variations in the dust composition with galaxy properties or redshift can dominate over other sources of $\beta$ variations and is the dominant model uncertainty. The dispersion in $\beta$ is anticorrelated with specific star formation rate and tends to be higher for the $z \sim 2-3$ simulations. In the actively star-forming $z \sim 2-3$ simulated galaxies, dust attenuation dominates the dispersion in $\beta$, whereas in the $z \sim 0$ simulations, the contributions of SFH variations and dust are similar. For low-SSFR systems at both redshifts, SFH variations dominate the dispersion. Finally, the simulated $z \sim 2-3$ isolated disks and mergers both occupy a region in the \irxbeta\ plane consistent with observed $z \sim 2-3$ dusty star-forming galaxies (DSFGs). Thus, contrary to some claims in the literature, the blue colors of high-z DSFGs do not imply that they are short-lived starbursts.Comment: 20 pages+a 4-page appendix, Accepted for publication at Ap

A Simple Non-equilibrium Feedback Model for Galaxy-Scale Star Formation: Delayed Feedback and SFR Scatter

We explore a class of simple non-equilibrium star formation models within the framework of a feedback-regulated model of the ISM, applicable to kiloparsec-scale resolved star formation relations (e.g. Kennicutt-Schmidt). Combining a Toomre-Q-dependent local star formation efficiency per free-fall time with a model for delayed feedback, we are able to match the normalization and scatter of resolved star formation scaling relations. In particular, this simple model suggests that large ($\sim$dex) variations in star formation rates (SFRs) on kiloparsec scales may be due to the fact that supernova feedback is not instantaneous following star formation. The scatter in SFRs at constant gas surface density in a galaxy then depends on the properties of feedback and when we observe its star-forming regions at various points throughout their collapse/star formation "cycles". This has the following important observational consequences: (1) the scatter and normalization of the Kennicutt-Schmidt relation are relatively insensitive to the local (small-scale) star formation efficiency, (2) but gas depletion times and velocity dispersions are; (3) the scatter in and normalization of the Kennicutt-Schmidt relation is a sensitive probe of the feedback timescale and strength; (4) even in a model where $\tilde Q_{\rm gas}$ deterministically dictates star formation locally, time evolution, variation in local conditions (e.g., gas fractions and dynamical times), and variations between galaxies can destroy much of the observable correlation between SFR and $\tilde Q_{\rm gas}$ in resolved galaxy surveys. Additionally, this model exhibits large scatter in SFRs at low gas surface densities, in agreement with observations of flat outer HI disk velocity dispersion profiles.Comment: 15 pages, 6 figures, accepted by MNRAS (04/25/2019

What shapes the far-infrared spectral energy distributions of galaxies?

To explore the connection between the global physical properties of galaxies and their far-infrared (FIR) spectral energy distributions (SEDs), we study the variation in the FIR SEDs of a set of hydrodynamically simulated galaxies that are generated by performing dust radiative transfer in post-processing. Our sample includes both isolated and merging systems at various stages of the merging process and covers infrared (IR) luminosities and dust masses that are representative of both low- and high-redshift galaxies. We study the FIR SEDs using principle component analysis (PCA) and find that 97\% of the variance in the sample can be explained by two principle components (PCs). The first PC characterizes the wavelength of the peak of the FIR SED, and the second encodes the breadth of the SED. We find that the coefficients of both PCs can be predicted well using a double power law in terms of the IR luminosity and dust mass, which suggests that these two physical properties are the primary determinants of galaxies' FIR SED shapes. Incorporating galaxy sizes does not significantly improve our ability to predict the FIR SEDs. Our results suggest that the observed redshift evolution in the effective dust temperature at fixed IR luminosity is not driven by geometry: the SEDs of $z \sim 2-3$ ultraluminous IR galaxies (ULIRGs) are cooler than those of local ULIRGs not because the high-redshift galaxies are more extended but rather because they have higher dust masses at fixed IR luminosity. Finally, based on our simulations, we introduce a two-parameter set of SED templates that depend on both IR luminosity and dust mass.Comment: Submitted to ApJ, comments welcom

Why are active galactic nuclei and host galaxies misaligned?

It is well established observationally that the characteristic angular momentum axis on small scales around active galactic nuclei (AGN), traced by radio jets and the putative torus, is not well correlated with the large-scale angular momentum axis of the host galaxy. In this paper, we show that such misalignments arise naturally in high-resolution simulations in which we follow angular momentum transport and inflows from galaxy to sub-pc scales near AGN, triggered either during galaxy mergers or by instabilities in isolated discs. Sudden misalignments can sometimes be caused by single massive clumps falling into the centre slightly off-axis, but more generally, they arise even when the gas inflows are smooth and trace only global gravitational instabilities. When several nested, self-gravitating modes are present, the inner ones can precess and tumble in the potential of the outer modes. Resonant angular momentum exchange can flip or re-align the spin of an inner mode on a short time-scale, even without the presence of massive clumps. We therefore do not expect that AGN and their host galaxies will be preferentially aligned, nor should the relative alignment be an indicator of the AGN fuelling mechanism. We discuss implications of this conclusion for AGN feedback and black hole (BH) spin evolution. The misalignments may mean that even BHs accreting from smooth large-scale discs will not be spun up to maximal rotation and so have more modest radiative efficiencies and inefficient jet formation. Even more random orientations/lower spins are possible if there is further unresolved clumpiness in the gas, and more ordered accretion may occur if the inflow is slower and not self-gravitating

The bias of the submillimetre galaxy population: SMGs are poor tracers of the most massive structures in the z ~ 2 Universe

It is often claimed that overdensities of (or even individual bright) submillimetre-selected galaxies (SMGs) trace the assembly of the most-massive dark matter structures in the Universe. We test this claim by performing a counts-in-cells analysis of mock SMG catalogues derived from the Bolshoi cosmological simulation to investigate how well SMG associations trace the underlying dark matter structure. We find that SMGs exhibit a relatively complex bias: some regions of high SMG overdensity are underdense in terms of dark matter mass, and some regions of high dark matter overdensity contain no SMGs. Because of their rarity, Poisson noise causes scatter in the SMG overdensity at fixed dark matter overdensity. Consequently, rich associations of less-luminous, more-abundant galaxies (i.e. Lyman-break galaxy analogues) trace the highest dark matter overdensities much better than SMGs. Even on average, SMG associations are relatively poor tracers of the most significant dark matter overdensities because of 'downsizing': at z < ~2.5, the most-massive galaxies that reside in the highest dark matter overdensities have already had their star formation quenched and are thus no longer SMGs. At a given redshift, of the 10 per cent most-massive overdensities, only ~25 per cent contain at least one SMG, and less than a few per cent contain more than one SMG.Comment: 6 pages, 3 figures, 1 table; accepted for publication in MNRAS; minor revisions from previous version, conclusions unchange

The origins of active galactic nuclei obscuration: the ‘torus’ as a dynamical, unstable driver of accretion

Recent multiscale simulations have made it possible to follow gas inflows responsible for high-Eddington ratio accretion on to massive black holes (BHs) from galactic scales to the BH accretion disc. When sufficient gas is driven towards a BH, gravitational instabilities generically form lopsided, eccentric discs that propagate inwards from larger radii. The lopsided stellar disc exerts a strong torque on the gas, driving inflows that fuel the growth of the BH. Here, we investigate the possibility that the same disc, in its gas-rich phase, is the putative ‘torus’ invoked to explain obscured active galactic nuclei (AGN) and the cosmic X-ray background. The disc is generically thick and has characteristic ∼1–10 pc sizes and masses resembling those required of the torus. Interestingly, the scale heights and obscured fractions of the predicted torii are substantial even in the absence of strong stellar feedback providing the vertical support. Rather, they can be maintained by strong bending modes and warps/twists excited by the inflow-generating instabilities. A number of other observed properties commonly attributed to ‘feedback’ processes may in fact be explained entirely by dynamical, gravitational effects: the lack of alignment between torus and host galaxy, correlations between local star formation rate (SFR) and turbulent gas velocities and the dependence of obscured fractions on AGN luminosity or SFR. We compare the predicted torus properties with observations of gas surface density profiles, kinematics, scale heights and SFR densities in AGN, and find that they are consistent in all cases. We argue that it is not possible to reproduce these observations and the observed column density distribution without a clumpy gas distribution, but allowing for simple clumping on small scales the predicted column density distribution is in good agreement with observations from NHH ∼ 10²⁰–10²⁷ cm⁻² . We examine how the NH distribution scales with galaxy and AGN properties. The dependence is generally simple, but AGN feedback may be necessary to explain certain trends in obscured fraction with luminosity and/or redshift. In our paradigm, the torus is not merely a bystander or passive fuel source for accretion, but is itself the mechanism driving accretion. Its generic properties are not coincidence, but requirements for efficient accretion