Explicit versus tacit knowledge in early science education: the case of primary school children's understanding of object speed and acceleration

Children are not blank slates when they begin school; instead, they bring prior conceptions about the everyday world with them. Situations of motion are ubiquitous in everyday life, and because of much interchange with the physical world conceptions are affected from a very early age. Yet prior conceptions of motion usually do not comply with accepted scientific views, and therefore conceptions need to be changed within the course of education. A differentiation can be made between explicit declarative knowledge and tacit procedural knowledge. 144 children aged 4 to 11 years were assessed on their explicit understanding of object speed and speed change along a horizontal, down an incline, and in free fall. Study 1 assessed the children’s predictions of motion using a range of everyday objects. Their conceptions were further assessed in Study 2 using a tube and two balls of different weights. Study 3 was a computer-presented quasi-replication of the tube-and-balls study. The results of these three studies suggest that children’s explicit predictions of motion are limited or incorrect. At the same time, many infancy studies have unveiled underlying knowledge about the physical world, which is considered tacit in its nature. Some researchers posit the idea that this knowledge does not change at its core and persists throughout the lifespan. While infancy research methods would be difficult to apply in a sample of children, judgement tasks may help in tapping tacit understanding in this age range. In Study 4, the children were shown video clips of the same set-up used in Study 3 but with motion occurring, either correctly or incorrectly. The children had to judge whether what they saw in the clips looked correct or not. The results indicate a mismatch between tasks requiring explicit predictions and a task relying on tacit judgements, suggesting judgements are more accurate than predictions. A dual-pathway model incorporating explicit and tacit reasoning is proposed, limitations of the current work are discussed, and suggestions for future work are made. Overall, it is evident that two kinds of understanding about the same topic are available in young children, and it is hoped that early science education can eventually consider this differentiation in order to facilitate conceptual change.This work was supported by a doctoral studentship from the Economic and Social Research Council of Great Britain (Grant no. ES/F036302/1)

Collaborating with the ‘more capable’ self: Achieving conceptual change in early science education through underlying knowledge structures

It is well-documented that children do not begin school as blank slates but that they bring with them extensive knowledge about how the world around them works. This conceptual knowledge, embedded within rich theoretical structures, is not always accurate and requires change through learning and instruction. Yet some ideas – such as object motion – appear to be particularly resistant to such change. So how can conceptual change be achieved or facilitated? Collaboration, for one, has long been recognised as a beneficial learning and teaching approach, including early science education. However, for deep-rooted ideas collaborating with others may not always have the desired impact. Instead, the notion of self-collaboration is considered in this review. The current state of research in the field of predictive and underlying knowledge in childhood is outlined and different models of how the knowledge systems relate to each other are discussed. While further work is still needed to establish a clearer picture of how self-collaboration might effect conceptual change, research to-date clearly identifies significant differences between predictive and underlying knowledge structures throughout childhood, how these structures can be related to traditional conceptual change theories, and how they may play a role in future learning and instructional approaches

Developing commonsense theories of motion: the emergence of misconceptions

How developmental psychology underpins our understanding of knowledge formation and conceptual change in early science education has been of concern for some time now, fostering a strong partnership between the two disciplines. In particular, there has long been interest in the development of knowledge that stands in conflict with accepted scientific views, often posing challenges for educational instruction. To explore this, the work presented here is a review of past and current studies I have conducted in the field of early understanding of rudimentary scientific concepts relating to the everyday world. Specific focus is placed on the construction of so-called commonsense theories of motion and the role played by object and motion dimension properties in contributing to this early conceptualization. Further, consideration is given to some of the nonverbal underpinnings of such constructions by addressing recent work into tacit knowledge and the role of relative object weight in preschool search tasks. Potential implications for educational practice are discussed, as well as relevant directions for future research

Understanding the beliefs informing children’s commonsense theories of motion: The role of everyday object variables in dynamic event predictions.

**Background** Children are not blank slates when they begin school; they bring prior conceptions about the everyday world with them. These conceptions usually do not comply with accepted scientific views and have to be changed within the process of education. However, to do this effectively more needs to be known about the relationship between the everyday world and children’s knowledge of scientific principles. **Purpose** This study sought answers to the question of which object variables children use when reasoning, and how these variables are associated with outcomes. The reported study addresses these issues in relation to object motion. **Sample, design and methods** UK primary school children (n = 144) aged 5–11 years were assessed on their predictions of motion along a horizontal, in fall and down an incline using a range of everyday objects by responding to questions where they needed to compare potential motion patterns of the objects. **Results** Round shape and smooth texture of objects were consistently associated with faster motion across age groups as well as across motion dimensions. However, faster horizontal motion was associated with lighter and smaller objects across all ages, whereas faster fall was associated with heavier objects. While younger children predicted faster incline motion for lighter and smaller objects, there was a shift in conceptions with age, with older children predicting faster motion for heavier and bigger objects. **Conclusions** The overall findings are used to support the development of commonsense theories of motion previously identified, and suggestions for educational practice are made. Specifically, it is suggested that these findings may need to be taken into consideration in the development of teacher training programmes

Children’s predictions and recognition of fall: The role of object mass

A small but growing body of evidence suggests that alongside misconceptions in predictions about object motion, adults and children hold relevant underlying conceptions, reflected in recognition, which provide greater understanding of such events. However, the relationship between knowledge retrieved in predictions and in recognition is unclear. One significant element contributing to misconceptions about motion is object mass. This aspect was used to provide further insight into the knowledge relationship. Predictions and recognition of fall in 5–11-year-old children (N = 121) were addressed in the present study. The results suggest that children’s recognition of object motion is far better than their expressed anticipation of such events, as they normally recognised correct events as correct and rejected incorrect ones yet predictions were typically in error. Response time data provide additional insight. The findings are discussed in relation to different models of knowledge representations, favouring a hybrid model

ADHD STUDENTS AND SCHOOL SOCIAL EDUCATION: A SWISS CASE STUDY ON THE IMPORTANCE OF EMPOWERMENT

Young people with ADHD are frequently marginalised, which affects their opportunities to be included within society. This places emphasis on how students are best prepared for becoming part of that society. The present case study investigated the perceptions of a needs-based and individualised support for students with ADHD in the context of a Swiss sociocratic school, from the perspectives of students and social educators. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with students diagnosed with ADHD and a school social educator to explore the influence of the diagnosis on self-perception and self-image, as well as their needs for support from social educators. The results emphasise the significance of belongingness and empowerment for students with ADHD, and how school social educators can act as a link between school and wider society. They demonstrate the importance of individually considering the needs of students with ADHD to provide appropriate support. Recommendations for school social education are made, both for working with students within the school context as well as for preparing them for the time beyond school.  Article visualizations

Incline height and object weight: examining the fluidity of children’s commonsense theories of motion

144 children aged 5 to 12 years made initial predictions about the speeds of a heavy and a light ball rolling down a slope. They were then asked to consider how changing the incline height would impact the initial predictions. The findings illustrate a shift from rigid differentiation to more flexible knowledge structures. While perceptions changed with 10 increasing age from light-as-faster to heavy-as-faster, younger children were also less likely to believe that any other incline steepness could conceivably lead to a different outcome. Older children, on the other hand, showed a heightened awareness of how changing incline heights could allow for alternative motion patterns. The study adds to current understanding of conceptual development. It expands on the debate between knowledge-in-pieces and knowledge-as-theory, concluding within its constrained scope that development of scientific knowledge about object motion possibly occurs in a transition from pieces to theory. Consequentially, the paper also considers implications for early science education