Letter from Francis Burton Harrison to Walter L. Fisher, 1912 Dec 3.

[illegible]possible value in connection with land development , only the amountof water that could be drawn off at a certain fixed level was estimated; This amount Mr. Martin and Mr. O’Shaughnessy figured at125,625 acre feet, or in gallons,-40,933,000,000. Bellow this levelin the large reservoir there are approximately 15.000,000,000gallons more, which makes the total capacity of the large reservoiras above stated, 65,000,000,000. Mr. O’Shaughnessy’s suggestion thatthe project would be tremendously valuable for city supply, led tofurther investigation which brought to light the other reservoirsherein mentioned. The following is a quotation from a report datedJuly 29, 1912, made by Mr. O’Shaughnessy to Wm. H. Crocker of SanFrancisco, concerning the largest reservoir herein referred to:- As the outlet of reservoir will have an elevation of 300feet above the sea, it would be possible to use this source as anauxiliary supply to Oakland, Berkeley or San Francisco, The waterwould be pure, unpolluted water from the snow shed of the Sierras,and the expense of developing and conveying would not be 60% of manyof the other Sierra schemes.Owing to the fact that reservoirs are situated in the foothillsand that facilities for construction work are of the best, thecost Hetch Hetchy project.The estimates of the capacity of the small reservoirs have beenmade conservatively, and Mr. Martin, the Engineer states that inhis opinion construction work will hardly [illegible] any more expensive pergallon of storage than in the case of the largest reservoir.I would be glad to furnish you with such data as I have at mycommand, but would prefer that an [illegible] engineer, whom you maycare to appoint for the work [illegible]made a complete report.Yours [illegible] truly,[illegible] Burton Harrison0634

Letter from Burton A. Harrison to General W. S. Featherston. 7 November 1862

Handwritten letter from Burton A. Harrison to General W.S. Featherston; sent from Richmondhttps://egrove.olemiss.edu/ciwar_corresp/1228/thumbnail.jp

Burton N. Harris to George Miller (6 July 1864)

Denying George\u27s request for a transfer from the Executive department, Confederate States of Americahttps://egrove.olemiss.edu/ciwar_corresp/1602/thumbnail.jp

Hyporheic Interactions Increase Zinc Exposure and Effects on Hyalella azteca in Sediments under Flow‐Through Conditions

Groundwater–surface water interactions in the hyporheic transition zone can influence contaminant exposure to benthic macroinvertebrates. In streams, hyporheic flows are subject to varying redox conditions, which influence biogeochemical cycling and metal speciation. Despite these relationships, little is known about how these interactions influence the ecological risk of contaminants. The present study investigated the effects of hyporheic flows and zinc (Zn)‐contaminated sediments on the amphipod Hyalella azteca. Hyporheic flows were manipulated in laboratory streams during 10‐d experiments. Zinc toxicity was evaluated in freshly spiked and aged sediments. Hyporheic flows altered sediment and porewater geochemistry, oxidizing the sediments and causing changes to redox‐sensitive endpoints. Amphipod survival was lowest in the Zn sediment exposures with hyporheic flows. In freshly spiked sediments, porewater Zn drove mortality, whereas in aged sediments simultaneously extracted metals (SEM) in excess of acid volatile sulfides (AVS) normalized by the fraction of organic carbon (fOC) [(SEM‐AVS)/fOC] influenced amphipod responses. The results highlight the important role of hyporheic flows in determining Zn bioavailability to benthic organisms, information that can be important in ecological risk assessments. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:2447–2458. © 2019 SETACPeer Reviewedhttps://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/152028/1/etc4554.pdfhttps://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/152028/2/etc4554_am.pd

Phylogenetics of Begonia section Gireoudia

Begonia is one of the most species-rich angiosperm genera with c. 1500 species currently identified and a pantropical distribution. Although Begonia are predominantly found in ever wet rain forests, they can also be found in other habitats including dry, desert scrub, and at altitudes from sea level to over 3000 meters. Begonia can also exhibit huge morphological variation between closely related species thus making them an ideal system for the study of the ecology, biogeography and developmental evolution of tropical plants. Previous work carried out at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh focused on the phylogenetic framework and biogeographic history of African and Asian Begonias. This work on the Neotropical Begonia Section Gireoudia, aims to complement those studies and to provide a framework for determining how macro- and micro-evolutionary processes have contributed to the high level of diversity in Begonia worldwide. Traditionally used nuclear and chloroplast markers for phylogenetics failed to resolve species level relationships within sect. Gireoudia, therefore an alternative approach using next-generation sequencing technology was developed. A multiplexed, massively parallel sequencing approach was developed to sequence sixteen Begonia chloroplast genomes on the Illumina GAIIx genome analyser in order to identify chloroplast regions with sufficient phylogenetic information to resolve a species-level phylogeny. The lack of a reference chloroplast genome sequence for Begonia led to the development of a new method combining sequence from conserved angiosperm chloroplast genome sequences together with long-range PCR to generate the samples. Eighteen, overlapping long-range PCR amplicons for each Begonia species were used in a multiplexed sequencing reaction on an Illumina GAIIx and the chloroplast sequence reads were assembled using a de novo approach. A selection of potentially, phylogenetically informative regions, determined from the large-scale chloroplast alignment generated during this study, were assessed. Two of these regions were chosen for further phylogenetic analysis and resulted in improved resolution of American Begonia, sect. Gireoudia. This study successfully demonstrates a new innovative approach to that normally taken in traditional molecular systematics. The research presented provides a framework for the development of new molecular markers that are suitable for low-level phylogenetic studies, especially where recent radiations make resolution of species groups difficult, such as Begonia. New sequencing technologies such as those used here will provide powerful new tools for students of molecular evolution, phylogenetics and taxonom

The effect of the particulate phase on coal biosolubilisation mediated by Trichoderma atroviride in a slurry bioreactor

Low rank coal is currently under-utilised because of its low calorific value and high moisture and sulphur content. Its solubilisation by both bacterial and fungal cultures has been reported, the latter more commonly. Coal biosolubilisation processes have potential to convert low rank coal to either a clean, cost-effective energy source or complex aromatic compounds for biocatalytic conversion to value-added products. This can lead to an increased utilisation of low rank coal. In this study, the key variables of the slurry that affect biosolubilisation of low rank coal by Trichoderma atroviride in submerged culture were investigated. Results showed that the key operating variables that influence coal biosolubilisation in the slurry bioreactor are coal loading and particle size affecting available surface area. These factors affect the surface area available for coal biosolubilisation. The optimum coal loading occurred between 5 and 10% (w/v); an increase above this optimum led to inhibition of the fungal culture of T. atroviride (ES11) by fragmentation of the fungal mycelium. A decrease in particle size fraction led to an increase in the degree of coal solubilisation. Coal biosolubilisation was shown to increase 4-fold when particle size was decreased from 600–850 μm to 150–300 μm. A 28% biosolubilisation of coal of 150–300 μm, characterised by a surface specific area of 2.17 cm2 g−1 , was measured as coal weight loss over 14 days at solids loading at 5%. This can be compared with a 7.8% coal weight loss at 600–850 μm diameters (0.54 cm2 g−1 ). Soluble phenolic compounds are not a significant product of the coal biosolubilisation process. The change in pH observed in the presence of both coal and fungi was independent of coal loading and was not directly related to the extent of coal solubilisation. While soluble intermediates were observed as total organic, further metabolism resulted in complete oxidation of a significant fraction of the coal to CO2

Interpopulation hybridization results in widespread viability selection across the genome in Tigriopus californicus

Background: Genetic interactions within hybrids influence their overall fitness. Understanding the details of these interactions can improve our understanding of speciation. One experimental approach is to investigate deviations from Mendelian expectations (segregation distortion) in the inheritance of mapped genetic markers. In this study, we used the copepod Tigriopus californicus, a species which exhibits high genetic divergence between populations and a general pattern of reduced fitness in F2 interpopulation hybrids. Previous studies have implicated both nuclear-cytoplasmic and nuclear-nuclear interactions in causing this fitness reduction. We identified and mapped population-diagnostic single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and used these to examine segregation distortion across the genome within F2 hybrids.Results: We generated a linkage map which included 45 newly elucidated SNPs and 8 population-diagnostic microsatellites used in previous studies. The map, the first available for the Copepoda, was estimated to cover 75% of the genome and included markers on all 12 T. californicus chromosomes. We observed little segregation distortion in newly hatched F2 hybrid larvae (fewer than 10% of markers at p < 0.05), but strikingly higher distortion in F2 hybrid adult males (45% of markers at p < 0.05). Hence, segregation distortion was primarily caused by selection against particular genetic combinations which acted between hatching and maturity. Distorted markers were not distributed randomly across the genome but clustered on particular chromosomes. In contrast to other studies in this species we found little evidence for cytonuclear coadaptation. Instead, different linkage groups exhibited markedly different patterns of distortion, which appear to have been influenced by nuclear-nuclear epistatic interactions and may also reflect genetic load carried within the parental lines.Conclusion: Adult male F2 hybrids between two populations of T. californius exhibit dramatic segregation distortion across the genome. Distorted loci are clustered within specific linkage groups, and the direction of distortion differs between chromosomes. This segregation distortion is due to selection acting between hatching and adulthood

Hitting Reset on Sediment Toxicity: Sediment Homogenization Alters the Toxicity of Metal‐Amended Sediments

Laboratory testing of sediments frequently involves manipulation by amendment with contaminants and homogenization, which changes the physicochemical structure of sediments. These changes can influence the bioavailability of divalent metals, and field and mesocosm experiments have shown that laboratory‐derived thresholds are often overly conservative. We assessed the mechanisms that lead to divergence between laboratory‐ and field‐derived thresholds; specifically, we assessed the importance of slow equilibration to solid‐phase ligands and vertical stratification. To mimic natural physicochemical conditions, we uniquely aged sediment with a flow‐through exposure system. These sediments were then homogenized and compared, toxicologically, with freshly metal‐amended sediments in a 28‐d chronic toxicity bioassay with the amphipod Hyalella azteca. We assessed concentration–response relationships for 3 metals (copper, nickel, and zinc) and 5 geochemically distinct sediments. We observed minimal differences in growth and survival of H. azteca between aged and freshly spiked sediments across all sediments and metals. These trends suggest that a loss of toxicity observed during long‐term sediment aging is reversed after sediment homogenization. By comparison with mesocosm experiments, we demonstrate that homogenizing sediment immediately before toxicity assays may produce artificially high toxicity thresholds. We suggest that toxicity assays with sediments that maintain vertical redox gradients are needed to generate field‐relevant sediment metal toxicity thresholds. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:1995–2007. © 2019 SETAC.Aging of sediment alone does not alter metal toxicity to amphipods, but it is the combination of aging and preserving natural redox gradients that can lower toxicity.Peer Reviewedhttps://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/151311/1/etc4512.pdfhttps://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/151311/2/etc4512_am.pdfhttps://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/151311/3/etc4512-sup-0001-EMBOSST2_supp_31May2019.pd

The Radial Extent and Warp of the Ionized Galactic Disk. II. A Likelihood Analysis of Radio-Wave Scattering Toward the Anticenter

We use radio-wave scattering data to constrain the distribution of ionized gas in the outer Galaxy. Like previous models, our model for the H II disk includes parameters for the radial scale length and scale height of the H II, but we allow the H II disk to warp and flare. Our model also includes the Perseus arm. We use a likelihood analysis on 11 extragalactic sources and 7 pulsars. Scattering in the Perseus arm is no more than 60% of the level contributed by spiral arms in the inner Galaxy, equivalent to a 1 GHz scattering diameter of 1.5 mas. Our analysis favors an unwarped, nonflaring disk with a 1 kpc scale height, though this may reflect the non-uniform and coarse coverage provided by the available data. The lack of a warp indicates that VLBI observations near 1 GHz with an orbiting station having baseline lengths of a few Earth diameters will not be affected by interstellar scattering at Galactic latitudes |b| ~ 15 degrees. The radial scale length is 15--20 kpc, but the data cannot distinguish between a gradual decrease in the electron density and a truncated distribution. We favor a truncated one, because we associate the scattering with massive star formation, which is also truncated near 20 kpc. The distribution of electron density turbulence decreases more rapidly with Galactocentric distance than does the hydrogen distribution. Alternate ionizing and turbulent agents---the intergalactic ionizing flux and satellite galaxies passing through the disk---do not contribute significantly to scattering. We cannot exclude the possibility that a largely ionized, but quiescent disk extends to >~ 100 kpc, similar to that for some Ly-alpha absorbers.Comment: 34 pages, LaTeX2e with AASTeX aaspp4 macro, 9 figures in 9 PostScript files, accepted for publication in Ap