High altitude Himalayan climate inferred from glacial ice flux

Glaciological processes are modeled to investigate precipitation patterns and the resulting mass flux of snow and ice across Himalayan topography. Our model tracks the accumulation and ablation of snow and ice and the transport of snow and ice across the topography by glacier motion. We investigate high elevation precipitation on the Annapurna Massif by comparing the existing ice cover with model-simulated glaciers produced by a suite of different precipitation scenarios. Our results suggest that precipitation reaches a maximum level well below the elevation of the highest peaks. Further, essentially no snow accumulates on the topography above an elevation of 6200–6300 m. Hence, the upper 1000+ m of the massif is a high elevation desert with little flux of snow and ice. Active glaciers are limited to a band of intermediate elevations where a maximum of about 60% of the landscape is covered by moving ice

Basal conditions and glacier motion during the winter/spring transition, Worthington Glacier, Alaska, U.S.A.

Observations of the motion and basal conditions of Worthington Glacier, Alaska, U.S.A., during late-winter and spring melt seasons revealed no evidence of a relationship between water pressure and sliding velocity. Measurements included borehole water levels (used as a proxy for basal water pressure), surface velocity, englacial deformation, sliding velocity, and time-lapse videography of subglacial water flow and bed characteristics. The boreholes were spaced 10-15 m apart; six were instrumented in 1997, and five in 1998. In late winter, the water-pressure field showed spatially synchronous fluctuations with a diurnal cycle. The glacier\u27s motion was relatively slow and non-cyclic. In spring, the motion was characterized by rapid, diurnally varying sliding. The basal water pressure displayed no diurnal signal, but showed high-magnitude fluctuations and often strong gradients between holes. This transition in character of the basal water-pressure field may represent a seasonal evolution of the drainage system from linked cavities to a network of isolated patches and conduits. These changes occurred as the glacier was undergoing a season-velocity peak. The apparent lack of correlation between sliding velocity and water pressure suggests that local-scale water pressure does not directly control sliding during late winter or early in the melt season

Crevasse patterns and the strain-rate tensor: a high-resolution comparison

Values of the strain-rate tensor represented at a 20 m length scale are found to explain the pattern and orientation of crevasses in a 0.13 km2 reach of Worthington Glacier, Alaska, U.S.A. The flow field of the reach is constructed from surveyed displacements of 110 markers spaced 20-30 m apart. A velocity gradient method is then used to calculate values of the principal strain-rate axes at the nodes of a 20 m x 20 m orthogonal grid. Crevasses in the study reach are of two types, splaying and transverse, and are everywhere normal to the trajectories of greatest (most tensile) principal strain rate. Splaying crevasses exist where the longitudinal strain rate (Ex) is less than or equal to 0 and transverse crevasses are present under longitudinally extending flow (i.e. Ex greater than 0). The orientation of crevasses changes in the down-glacier direction, but the calculated rotation by the flow field does not account for this change in orientation. Observations suggest that individual crevasses represent local values of the regional flow field and are transient on the time-scale of 1-2 years; they are not persistent features that are translated and rotated by flow. Crevasse patterns are thus found to be a useful tool for mapping the strain-rate tensor in this reach of a temperate valley glacier

Thermal tracking of meltwater retention in Greenland’s accumulation area

Poorly understood processes controlling retention of meltwater in snow and firn have important implications for Greenland Ice Sheet’s mass balance and flow dynamics. Here we present results from a 3 year (2007-2009) field campaign studying firn thermal profiles and density structure along an 85 km transect of the percolation zone of west Greenland. We installed one or two thermistor strings at 14 study sites, each string having 32 sensors spaced between 0 and 10 m depth. Data from our network of over 500 sensors were collected at 15-60 min intervals for 1-2 years, thereby recording the thermal signature of meltwater infiltration and refreezing during annual melt cycles. We document three types of heating of firn related to different mechanisms of meltwater motion and freezing, including heterogeneous breakthrough events, wetting front advance, and year-round heating from freezing of residual deep pore water. Vertically infiltrating meltwater commonly penetrates through cold firn accumulated over decades, even where ice layers are present at the previous summer surface and where ice layer thickness exceeds several decimeters. The offset between the mean annual air temperature and the 10 m firn temperature reveals the elevation dependency of meltwater retention along our transect. The firn is less than 10 degrees C warmer than the mean annual air temperature at the region where meltwater runoff initiates. During 2007-2009, runoff was limited to elevations lower than about 1500 m with no sharp runoff limit ; rather, the ratio of retention to runoff transitioned from all retention to all runoff across an about 20 km wide zone

Temperature distribution and thermal anomalies along a flowline of the Greenland ice sheet

Englacial and basal temperature data for the Greenland ice sheet (GrIS) are sparse and mostly limited to deep interior sites and ice streams, providing an incomplete representation of the thermal state of ice within the ablation zone. Here we present 11 temperature profiles at five sites along a 34km east-west transect of West Greenland. These profiles depict ice temperatures along a flowline and local temperature variations between closely spaced boreholes. A temperate basal layer is present in all profiles, increasing in thickness in the flow direction, where it expands from about 3% of ice height furthest inland to 100% at the margin. Temperate thickness growth is inconsistent with modeled heat contributions from strain heating, heat conduction, and vertical extension of the temperate layer. We suggest that basal crevassing, facilitated by water pressures at or near ice overburden pressure, is responsible for the large temperate ice thicknesses observed. High-temperature kinks at 51-85m depth are likely remnants from the thermal influence of partially water-filled crevasses up ice sheet. Steep horizontal temperature gradients between closely grouped boreholes suggest the recent thermal influence of a moulin. These profiles demonstrate the ability of meltwater to rapidly alter ice temperatures at all depths within the ablation zone

Two modes of accelerated glacier sliding related to water

We present the first glacier-wide detailed measurement of basal effective pressure and related observations including bed separation to elucidate the role of water in sliding. The hard bedded glacier instrumented in our study exhibited two phases of accelerated sliding motion apparently driven by separate mechanisms. The first acceleration phase (up to 5 fold increase in speed) was closely tied to an increase in bed separation. The faster second phase (up to 9 fold increase in speed) was related to an unusually high level of connectivity of subglacial waters. We infer the first mode was related to cavity opening and the second mode was related to reduced ice contact with the bed. Glacier sliding over a hard bed is typically represented by sliding laws that include the effective basal pressure, but neither sliding phase was accompanied by a simultaneous decrease in local or regional effective pressure

Diurnal water-pressure fluctuations: timing and pattern of termination below Bench Glacier, Alaska, USA

Observations from basal water-pressure sensors along the length of Bench Glacier, Alaska, USA, show that diurnal fluctuations of water pressure are seasonal and restricted to summer. Most notable about these fluctuations is their disappearance in the late summer and early autumn, long before the seasonal end of diurnal meltwater input. Here we present data documenting the end of diurnal water-pressure fluctuations during the 2002 and 2003 melt seasons. The end of diurnal fluctuations occurred abruptly in multiple boreholes spaced meters to kilometers apart. There was no obvious spatial progression of termination events, and a clear correlation with meteorological forcing or discharge in the outlet stream was not apparent. After diurnal pressure fluctuations ended, basal water pressure returned to a high, generally steady, value either in an irregular pattern or by a distinct increase. This high water pressure was interrupted by episodic, acyclic events throughout the autumn before becoming stable and high in winter

Depth-varying constitutive properties observed in an isothermal glacier

Detailed three-dimensional in-situ measurements of deformation at depth are used to examine the rheology of a 6 x 106 m3 block of temperate glacier ice. Assuming that the viscosity of this ice is primarily dependent on stress, the relationship between inferred stress and measurements of strain-rate above about 115 m depth suggest a constitutive relationship with a stress exponent n about 1. Deformation below 115 m is described by a non-linear flow law with a power exponent of approximately 3-4. A sharp transition between the two flow regimes is likely caused by a change in the dominant mechanism from superplastic flow, basal slip, and/or diffusional flow near the surface to dislocation and intragranular deformation at depth

Diurnal fluctuations in borehole water levels: configuration of the drainage system beneath Bench Glacier, Alaska, USA

Water levels were measured in boreholes spaced along the entire length of Bench Glacier, Alaska, USA, for a period in excess of 2 years. Instrumented boreholes were arranged as nine pairs along the center line of the glacier and an orthogonal grid of 16 boreholes in a 3600 m2 region at the center of the ablation area. Dirunal fluctuations of the water levels were found to be restricted to the late melt season. Pairs of boreholes spaced along the length of the ablation area often exhibited similar fluctuations and diurnal changes in water levels. Three distinct and independent types of diurnal fluctuations in water level were observed in cluster of boreholes within the grid of boreholes. Head gradients suggest water did not flow between clusters,and a single tunnel connecting the boreholes could not explain the observed pattern of diunal water-level fluctuations. Inter-borehole and borehole-cluster connectivity suggests the cross-glacier width of influence of a segment of the drainage system connected to a borehole was limited to tens of meters. A drainage configuration whereby boreholes are connected to a somewhat distant tunnel by drainage pipes of differing lengths, often hundreds of meters, is shown with a numerical test to be a plausible explanation for the observed borehole behavior

Mapping subglacial surfaces of temperate valley glaciers by two-pass migration of a radio-echo sounding survey

High-resolution maps of the glacier bed are developed through a pseudo-three-dimensional migration of a dense array of radio-echo sounding profiles. Resolution of three-dimensional maps of sub-glacial surfaces is determined by the radio-echo sounding wavelength, data spacing in the field, and migration. Based on synthetic radio-echo sounding profile experiments, the maximum resolution of the final map cannot exceed one half-wavelength. A methodology of field and processing techniques is outlined to develop a maximum-resolution map of the glacier bed. The field and processing techniques valley glacier in south-central Alaska. The field techniques and the processing steps used on the glacier result in a map of 20 m x 20 m resolution