The Russian Commercial Fleet in the Treaty Ports of China in the Second Half of the 19th Century

The article offers a comprehensive analysis of the activity of the Russian merchant fleet in China in the second half of the 19th century. This historical issue is particularly relevant in connection with the active development of modern foreign trade in China and the strengthening of Russian-Chinese trade and economic ties. The historical research is based on the materials of the central archives of Russian Federation (including the Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire and the Russian State Historical Archive). The methodology is based on a comparative analysis of Russian shipping in China and similar activities of other foreigners, and a system analysis that allows us to study the issue in the context of the overall development of Russian-Chinese trade. An important component of the article is the statistical analysis of data on the development of maritime Russian-Chinese trade, foreign shipping in China, and freight rates. The article considers the development of the organization of maritime Russian-Chinese trade in Odessa and the Far East directions. On the example of several treaty ports (Hankou, Shanghai, and Chifu), the features of the development of Russian commercial navigation in Chinese waters and the accompanying complexities of this pro-cess are shown. As a result, the author comes to the conclusion that there is a direct correlation between the level of infrastructure development in the Russian Far East and the expansion of the presence of the Russian merchant fleet in the treaty ports of China at the end of the 19th century. © 2022, RUDN UNiversity. All rights reserved

The resolution of the Russian — Chinese border crisis 1870–1880th in the departmental structures of the Russian Empire

В статье рассматривается вопрос дипломатического разрешения русско-китайского пограничного кризиса 1871–1881 гг. Внимание акцентировано на роли Министерства иностранных дел и Военного ведомства Российской империи в процессе разрешения кризиса. На основе архивных материалов дан анализ действий обоих ведомств. Подчеркивается сотрудничество министерств в ходе решения проблемы. Рассмотрены спорные вопросы, возникшие в ходе дипломатических переговоров.The article discusses the question of a diplomatic solution of the Russian-Chinese border crisis 1871–1881. The attention is focused on the role of the Ministry of foreign Affairs and the defense Ministry of the Russian Empire in the process of resolving the crisis. On the basis of materials of Russian state military historical archive the actions of both agencies in the resolution of the Russian-Chinese border issue in the 70’s — 80th of the XIX century was analyzed. Cooperation among ministries is emphasized the in the course of solving problems, and the controversial issues arising in the diplomatic negotiations is considered

Manchuria and Xinjiang region in Russia’s foreign policy in China in the late XIX — early XX centuries: comparative historical aspect

The Far East policy of the Russian Empire at a boundary of the XIX–XX centuries is one of the most problematic issues in the history of the Russian-Chinese relations. The choice of Manchuria as the region of an adoption of the Russian influence had led in a result to the war with Japan (1904–1905) and to loss of results of the Russian policy in China of the previous decade. In this regard is of interest to consider the region of Manchuria in the comparative analysis with other regions of China bordering on the Russian Empire. The object of comparison was the Xinjiang region, which, in the author’s opinion, had significant advantages over Manchuria in the development of Russian-Chinese trade relations.Дальневосточная политика Российской империи на рубеже XIX–XX вв. является одним из наиболее проблемных вопросов в истории русско-китайских отношений. Выбор Маньчжурии в качестве региона утверждения русского влияния привел в итоге к военному столкновению с Японией (1904–1905) и потере результатов российской политики в Китае предшествующего десятилетия. В этой связи интерес представляет сравнительный анализ Маньчжурии с другими регионами Китая, граничившими с Российской империей. В качестве объекта сравнения был выбран регион Синьцзян, который, по мнению автора, имел значительные преимущества перед Маньчжурией в развитии российско-китайских торговых отношений

Russian Kerosene on the Chinese Market in the late 19th – early 20th centuries

The article raises the problem of Russian kerosene trade on the market of the Qing Empire in the late 19th – early 20th centuries. During the second half of the 19th century, the oil industry of the Russian Empire began to actively explore foreign markets in Europe and Asia, including the Chinese market. At the same time, other major world exporters of petroleum products – the American company Standard Oil, the Dutch company Royal Dutch and the English Shell were also interested in developing the Chinese market. As a result, at the beginning of the 20th century, Russian kerosene was practically ousted from the Chinese market. The article examines the general situation of foreign kerosene trade in China; the activities of the main companies selling kerosene; the reconstruction of the process of kerosene delivery to China; the organization of trade in goods on the Chinese market. The materials of the central archives of Russia (Archive of the foreign policy of the Russian Empire, Russian state historical archive) also helped to reconstruct the process of trading Russian kerosene in certain "open" ports of the Qing Empire – Tianjin, Fuzhou, etc. The main difficulties associated with the Russian kerosene trade in China are shown, the main reasons for the decline of this trade direction are identified. Copyright © 2022 by Cherkas Global University.Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation, MinobrnaukaThe research funding from the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation (Ural Federal University Program of Development within the Priority-2030 Program) is gratefully acknowledged

Constructing the Frontier: Russian-Chinese Trade as a Factor in the Modernization of the Far East at the Turn of the 19th and 20th Centuries

The article delves into the development of the transport and logistical infrastructure on the Far Eastern frontier of the Russian Empire during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Throughout the period under study, challenges that emerged in the trade relations between Russia and China led to the creation of a new freight transport system for Russian-Chinese trading. This system proposed the integration of rail and maritime communication, with a sea port acting as the central logistical hub. This vision materialized with the construction of Russian railways in Manchuria, the leasing of Port Russian Dalian on the Liaodong Peninsula, and the initiation of maritime shipping by the China Eastern Railway Company. The article aims to systematically investigate the foundational concepts and the actualization of each segment of this new infrastructure. The research uncovered that the railways, sea port, and maritime shipping orchestrated by the Russian Empire in the Far East were viewed as cohesive elements of a unified trade and transport corridor. This corridor’s primary goal was to forge an effective linkage with the Pacific region. The data assessed in the study indicates that the Chinese ports and market stood as the foremost objectives for Russia’s geoeconomic pursuits in the Far East. In conclusion, the study underscores the importance of these novel infrastructural developments in the frontier modernization of the Far Eastern boundary shared by Russia and China. © 2023 Saint Petersburg State University of Aerospace Instrumentation. All rights reserved.Russian Science Foundation, RSF: 22-78-00050Исследование выполнено за счет гранта Российского научного фонда № 22-78-00050 «Система торговых отношений России и Китая во второй поло-вине XIX – начале XX в.», https://rscf.ru/project/22-78-00050 The study was supported by the Russian Science Foundation grant No. 22-78-00050 “The system of trade relations between Russia and China in the second half of the 19th — early 20th centuries”, https://rscf.ru/project/22-78-0005

Russian Merchant Shipping in Manchuria in the late 19th – early 20th centuries

The article deals with the problem of Russian merchant shipping along the Manchurian Sungari River in the late 19th – early 20th centuries. Initially, private entrepreneurs-ship owners, Amur steamship companies and steamships of the CER Society took part in it, after the Russo-Japanese War in Manchuria, only ships of the CER Society remained to operate. The Russian railway in Manchuria became the most important factor in supporting Russian merchant shipping along the Songhua, since in the absence of access to the South Manchurian market, the river acted as a natural supply route to the CER. River trade in Manchuria allowed Russia to solve several strategic issues. Firstly, navigation along the Songhua River has always been considered by the Russian authorities to maintain their own influence in Northeast China. Secondly, the delivery of grain and livestock from the Manchurian cities made it possible to provide the Far Eastern periphery of Russia with provisions. The article studies in detail the listed features and stages of Russian navigation along the Songhua River, analyses the statistical data on cargo transportation on Russian steamships, and examines the main problems faced by river navigation in Manchuria. The study is based on little-studied materials from the Russian State Historical Archive. Copyright © 2023 by Cherkas Global University.Russian Science Foundation, RSF: 22-78-00050Исследование выполнено за счет гранта Российского научного фонда № 22-78-00050 «Система торговых отношений России и Китая во второй половине XIX – начале XX в.», https://rscf.ru/project/22-78-00050/ The study was supported by the Russian Science Foundation grant № 22-78-00050 “The system of trade relations between Russia and China in the second half of the 19th — early 20th centuries”, https://rscf.ru/project/22-78-0005

Russian Tea Business in Hankou in the second half of the 19th century: Baikhovi Tea Purchase Transactions

The article studies the activities of Russian entrepreneurs in the Chinese port of Hankou as part of the purchase of tea for the Russian market. Baikhovi tea was a product under which Russian pre-revolutionary literature, source base and statistics understood the most expensive varieties of Chinese tea, grown and processed on Chinese plantations and factories and sent for sale to foreigners in the port of Hankou. This aspect is a particular issue of Russian-Chinese trade in the second half of the 19th century, but it seems important for a more in-depth study of this topic and expanding scientific knowledge about Russian-Chinese relations in general. The article discusses the features of the production and transportation of baikhovi tea to the Hankou market, issues of tea pricing, the buying and selling process, factors influencing the trade of baikhovi tea in Hankou, aspects of competition between the tea trade of Hankou and Shanghai and the competition of foreign trading houses for the purchase of this product and shipment it to the Russian market. The conclusions of the work summarize the main results of the study and show the significance of the participation of Russian entrepreneurs in the tea trade for Russian-Chinese relations at the time under review. © 2023 International Network Center for Fundamental and Applied Research. All rights reserved.Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation, MinobrnaukaThe research funding from the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation (Ural Federal University Program of Development within the Priority-2030 Program) is gratefully acknowledged

A 4500-Year Tree-Ring Record of Extreme Climatic Events on the Yamal Peninsula

Based on the analysis of the frequency of anomalous anatomical structures in the wood of Siberian larch and Siberian spruce (frost rings, light rings, and false rings, as well as missing and narrow rings), we reconstructed a timeline of climatic extremes (summer frosts, sharp multiday decreases in air temperature during the growing season, and low average summer temperatures) in Yamal (Western Siberia) over the last 4500 years. In total, 229 years were determined to have experienced extreme events. The most significant temperature extremes were recorded in 2053, 1935, 1647, 1626, 1553, 1538, 1410, 1401, 982, 919, 883 BCE, 143, 404, 543, 640, 1209, 1440, 1453, 1466, 1481, 1601 and 1818 CE. These dates with extrema observed in Yamal corrobarated with tree ring data from other regions and revealed several coincidences. That is, in these years, the observed extremes appeared to have been on a global rather than a regional scale. Moreover, these dates coincided with traces of large volcanic eruptions found in ice cores from Greenland and Antarctica, dated to approximately the same years. Therefore, the cause of the extreme summer cooling on a global scale, in most cases, can be linked to large volcanic eruptions. © 2023 by the authors.Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation, MinobrnaukaThe research funding from the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation (Ural Federal University Program of Development within the Priority-2030 Program) is gratefully acknowledged

An 8768-year Yamal Tree-ring Chronology as a Tool for Paleoecological Reconstructions

Abstract—In recent years, the supra-long Yamal tree-ring chronology has been significantly extended and became much more reliable. This article characterizes the sample wood used to build the longest absolutely dated Siberian Larch tree-ring chronology of the Subarctic area, i.e. from 6748 BC to 2019 AD, for a total continuous period of 8768 years. The ecological value of the temporal and spatial distribution of the dated trees are presented, and their potential use for application in various field of natural sciences and humanities are discussed. © 2021, Pleiades Publishing, Ltd.This study was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (project no. 18-05-00575). P. Fonti thanks the Swiss Science Foundation for the financial support (project “CALDERA” no. CRSII5_183571)

FUZHOU – THE TREATY PORT IN THE SYSTEM OF RUSSIA-CHINESE TRADE IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY

The article analyzes the role of Fuzhou in the system of Russian-Chinese trade relations. In 1842, the Anglo-Chinese Treaty of Nanking mentioned Fuzhou among the five treaty ports opened to the foreign trade. But the organization of the tea trade in the port began only after 1855. During the 1850s – 1870s, Fuzhou was one of the main Chinese tea markets. During that time, several Russian trade firms operated in the port. The article describes the role of Fuzhou in the system of Russian-Chinese trade relations. The primary sources of article are the materials from the Archive of the Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire. The documents of Russian consuls show that the organization of Russian trade in Fuzhou had several features. Russian firms established several brick-tea factories in the interior of the Fujian province. Some of the Russian factories used steam-powered machines to mold the tea bricks. Russian merchants learned the Chinese language and operated without compradors. The author analyzes the main transport routes of Russian-Chinese trade. In the second part of the 19th century, the most developed transport route from China to the Russian empire was a transit through Mongolia to Kyakhta. At the same time, maritime trade was developed actively. Fuzhou exported tea to Odessa, Vladivostok and Nikolaevsk. However, in Fujian province and Fuzhou, Russian brick-tea industry faced with different problems such as local xenophobia and competition of Chinese tea business. The main problem of Russian-Chinese trade relations was a great imbalance between export and import. Russian manufactured goods could not find consumers in the Chinese market. The author argues that the inactive policy of Russian merchants was the main reason for this failure. At the end of the 19th century, export trade of Fuzhou declined. At that time, Indian tea began to dominate the British market. Nevertheless, in the second half of the 19th century, Fuzhou was one of the main Chinese treaty ports in the system of Russian-Chinese trade relations. © 2019, Permskii Gosudarstvennyi Natsional'nyi Issledovatel'skii Universitet. All rights reserved