Analysis of Non-conventional Indicators of Gender Relations: Evidence from Pakistan

Since 1980 many developing countries have adopted two major macroeconomic strategies: Stabilisation and Structural Adjustment. A generally held view regarding the impact of these macroeconomic strategies is that it led to unemployment, low investment, decline in real wages, capital flight, rise in inequality and poverty. All these resulted in deterioration in living conditions of the poor in the short run.1 In some cases, the long run benefits, if any, of these programmes are sacrificed due to the high social costs in the short run. A number of studies, examining the impact of the observed macroeconomic impact of the Structural Adjustment Policies (StAP), report mixed impact on women. For example, on the one hand, Khan (1999) found an increasing trend in feminisation of agricultural labour2, and feminisation of poverty3 while Brown (1992), on the other hand, reports employment as a key factor in determining women’s empowerment and argues that some aspects of economic reforms hold for improvement in the long-run. The argument is based on the assumption that greater economic role for women offers protection and that employment itself mitigates against domestic violence. However, the overall effect of structural adjustment is difficult to measure as it varies across countries, across sectors, and across individuals within a household.

Gender Differences in Demand for Schooling

The comparison of human development indicators in Table 1 shows that Pakistan’s performance is below the average for South Asian countries and below the average for the developing countries. Furthermore, gender differences in human development are also significant within country and across countries. For example, in 1999, differences in male and female literacy rate was 24 points in Pakistan, higher then the difference in less developed countries (equalling 15 points). [See HDC (2001)]. Similarly, within Pakistan, male literacy rate increased from 35 percent in 1980-81 to 56.6 percent in 1998-99 whereas female literacy rate increased from 16 percent in 1980-81 to 32.6 percent in 1998-99. This shows that despite doubling of female literacy rate, the gap between male and female literacy rate widened from 19 percent in 1980-81 to 24 percent in 1998-99. Similarly, another indicator of human capital, i.e., the net enrolment rates at primary level exhibited a declining trend in 1990s, particularly among males. An important reason for the decline could be rise in poverty. Table 2 shows a sustained increase in net enrolment ratio with income, and the positive income effect is higher in urban areas. In rural areas, the enrolment rate increases with income but there is slight decline in female enrolment rate at the highest income level. Thus, despite rapid rise in female enrolment the gender, differences persist and income is the main factor affecting demand for education.

Analysis of Non-conventional Indicators of Gender Relations: Evidence from Pakistan

Since 1980 many developing countries have adopted two major macroeconomic strategies: Stabilisation and Structural Adjustment. A generally held view regarding the impact of these macroeconomic strategies is that it led to unemployment, low investment, decline in real wages, capital flight, rise in inequality and poverty. All these resulted in deterioration in living conditions of the poor in the short run.1 In some cases, the long run benefits, if any, of these programmes are sacrificed due to the high social costs in the short run. A number of studies, examining the impact of the observed macroeconomic impact of the Structural Adjustment Policies (StAP), report mixed impact on women. For example, on the one hand, Khan (1999) found an increasing trend in feminisation of agricultural labour2, and feminisation of poverty3 while Brown (1992), on the other hand, reports employment as a key factor in determining women’s empowerment and argues that some aspects of economic reforms hold for improvement in the long-run. The argument is based on the assumption that greater economic role for women offers protection and that employment itself mitigates against domestic violence. However, the overall effect of structural adjustment is difficult to measure as it varies across countries, across sectors, and across individuals within a household

Gender Differences in Demand for Schooling

The comparison of human development indicators in Table 1 shows that Pakistan’s performance is below the average for South Asian countries and below the average for the developing countries. Furthermore, gender differences in human development are also significant within country and across countries. For example, in 1999, differences in male and female literacy rate was 24 points in Pakistan, higher then the difference in less developed countries (equalling 15 points). [See HDC (2001)]. Similarly, within Pakistan, male literacy rate increased from 35 percent in 1980-81 to 56.6 percent in 1998-99 whereas female literacy rate increased from 16 percent in 1980-81 to 32.6 percent in 1998-99. This shows that despite doubling of female literacy rate, the gap between male and female literacy rate widened from 19 percent in 1980-81 to 24 percent in 1998-99. Similarly, another indicator of human capital, i.e., the net enrolment rates at primary level exhibited a declining trend in 1990s, particularly among males. An important reason for the decline could be rise in poverty. Table 2 shows a sustained increase in net enrolment ratio with income, and the positive income effect is higher in urban areas. In rural areas, the enrolment rate increases with income but there is slight decline in female enrolment rate at the highest income level. Thus, despite rapid rise in female enrolment the gender, differences persist and income is the main factor affecting demand for education

Applying the Extended Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) to Predict Behavioural Intention in the Context of Transformational Tourism: A Case of Nizamuddin Shrine

The term ‘transformational tourism’ refers to a burgeoning subset of the travel market that goes well beyond the more established categories of just spiritual and religious tourism. This paper aims at examining tourists’ intentions to visit the Nizamuddin Shrine (Delhi) as a transformational tourism destination. The framework incorporates the constructs of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) i.e. Attitude, Subjective Norms, and Perceived Behavioural Control with an additional construct, Motivation. A Google forms online survey was employed to gather data. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) using AMOS software was employed to test the proposed hypotheses. A sample of 388 respondents was considered for the study. The findings confirm the validity and impact of all the four constructs on the Behavioural Intention to visit the Nizamuddin Shrine as a transformational tourism destination. Very few studies have attempted empirical research on tourist behaviour against the background of transformational tourism. This research offers new insights into tourist behavioural intention through the integration of the extended TPB in the setting of a transformational tourism destination. In the concluding part, the implications, limitations, and future research opportunities are conferred

2-Methyl-1,2-benzisothia­zol-3(2H)-one 1,1-dioxide

All atoms of the title mol­ecule, C8H7NO3S, except the two oxide O atoms and two H atoms of the methyl group, lie on a crystallographic mirror plane. The crystal structure is stabilized by weak inter- and intra­molecular C—H⋯O hydrogen bonds

N-Benzyl-4-hy­droxy-2-methyl-1,1-dioxo-2H-1λ6,2-benzothia­zine-3-carboxamide

In the title mol­ecule, C17H16N2O4S, the heterocyclic thia­zine ring adopts a half-chair conformation, with the S and N atoms displaced by 0.546 (4) and 0.281 (4) Å, respectively, on opposite sides of the mean plane formed by the remaining ring atoms. The mol­ecular structure is stabilized by an intra­molecular O—H⋯O hydrogen bond. The two aromatic rings are inclined to one another by 42.32 (11)°. In the crystal, mol­ecules are linked by pairs of N—H⋯O hydrogen bonds, forming inversion dimers. The dimers are linked via a series of C—H⋯O inter­actions, leading to the formation of a three-dimensional network

N-Acetonylsaccharin

In the title compound [systematic name: 2-(2-oxoprop­yl)-1,2-benzothia­zol-3(2H)-one 1,1-dioxide], C10H9NO4S, the benzo­thia­zole unit is essentially planar [maximum deviation = 0.0490 (9) Å for the S atom] and the oxopropyl group is inclined at an angle 75.61 (8)° with respect to its mean plane. In the crystal, mol­ecules are held together by weak inter­molecular C—H⋯O non-classical hydrogen bonds, resulting in centrosymmetric dimeric units, forming 14-membered ring systems which may be described as R 2 2(14) ring motifs. Moreover, mol­ecules lying about inversion centers show π–π inter­actions, with centroid–centroid separations between the benzene rings of 3.676 (2) Å

4-Hy­droxy-2-methyl-1,1-dioxo-N-phenyl-2H-1λ6,2-benzothia­zine-3-carboxamide

In the title mol­ecule, C16H14N2O4S, the thia­zine ring adopts a twist chair conformation with the N and adjacent C atom displaced by 0.966 (3) and 0.386 (4) Å, respectively, on the same side of the mean plane formed by the remaining ring atoms. The dihedral angle between the mean planes of the benzene rings is 37.65 (10)°. The mol­ecular structure features an intra­molecular O—H⋯O hydrogen bond, which generates an S(6) ring. In the crystal, mol­ecules are linked by N—H⋯O and C—H⋯O hydrogen bonds

3-[Hy­droxy(3-meth­oxy­phen­yl)methyl­idene]-2-(2-oxo-2-phenyl­eth­yl)-3,4-dihydro-2H-1λ6,2-benzothia­zine-1,1,4-trione

In the title mol­ecule, C24H19NO6S, the heterocyclic thia­zine ring adopts a half-chair conformation with the S and N atoms displaced by 0.180 (5) and 0.497 (5) Å, respectively, on opposite sides of the mean plane formed by the remaining ring atoms. The benzene rings of the benzothia­zine unit and the meth­oxy­phenyl group are almost coplanar, with the dihedral angle between the mean planes of these rings being 5.9 (2)°, while the benzene ring of the 2-oxo-2-phenyl­ethyl group is inclined at 79.68 (11) and 81.01 (10)°, respectively, to these rings. The mol­ecular structure is consolidated by intra­molecular O—H⋯O and C—H⋯N inter­actions, and the crystal packing is stabilized by weak C—H⋯O hydrogen bonds