Urbanization affects body size and parasitism but not thermal preferences in \u3cem\u3eAnolis\u3c/em\u3e lizards

Urbanization is accelerating worldwide and creates novel habitat conditions including increases in environmental temperature and changes in presence and abundance of predators, prey and parasites. For species that use urban habitats, these changes can have strong impacts on phenotypes. Anolis lizards commonly exploit urban habitats and, as ectotherms, are likely to experience pressures from these novel environments. Previous research shows that anoles may adapt to some aspects of urban habitats, but we lack an understanding of the breadth of traits that may shift in response to urbanization and how widespread these changes may be. To assess effects of urban habitat use on anole phenotypes, we measured morphology, thermal preference and parasitism in brown anoles (Anolis sagrei) and crested anoles (Anolis cristatellus) from urban and natural habitats within the Miami metropolitan area (FL, USA). In urban areas, individuals of both species were larger, but did not show any differences in preferred body temperatures. These results agree with other studies showing increased body size in anoles inhabiting urban areas, but the mechanisms underlying this pattern are unclear. Brown anoles experienced higher levels of parasite infection intensity in urban habitats, but crested anoles showed no differences between urban and natural sites. Increased infection intensity in urban brown anoles suggests that exploiting urban habitats may have costs and shows that urbanization can lead to species-specific changes in ecologically similar congeners. Understanding how urban habitats alter phenotypes of organisms that exploit these areas will be important in predicting costs of and adaptive responses to future urbanization

Bright lights, big city: an experimental assessment of short-term behavioral and performance effects of artificial light at night on Anolis lizards

With urbanization expanding into natural areas, it is increasingly important to understand how species subject to human-induced habitat alteration respond to novel opportunities and stressors. A pervasive consequence of urbanization is artificial light at night (ALAN), which previous studies have found introduces both costs and benefits for vertebrates. This understanding, however, primarily reflects findings from laboratory-controlled experiments or comparisons of wild populations in areas with long-standing differences in ALAN regimes. Here, we investigated the short-term costs and benefits for Anolis lizards during the period of initial exposure to ALAN using realistic light levels for urban areas (mean ± SD = 87.9 ± 36.7 lx at a distance of 3 m). As compared to controls, we hypothesized that adding ALAN would result in behavioral and physiological changes over the short term for brown anoles and their arthropod prey. In contrast to predictions, ALAN did not increase arthropod abundance or extend anole activity into the night. Structural habitat and sleep site use changed little in response to ALAN, which exposed about one-third of sleeping anoles in ALAN plots to light at night due to our manipulation. However, this direct light exposure resulted in lizards being more easily roused from sleep compared to lizards sleeping in the dark in control plots or in shadows in ALAN plots. The apparent inability of some anoles to adjust their sleep sites to avoid ALAN exposure may have contributed to their increased responsiveness at night and decreased locomotor endurance in the day. Our study suggests brown anoles can experience higher short-term costs than benefits during initial exposure to ALAN

Physiological variation among invasive populations of the brown anole (Anolis sagrei)

Invasive species often encounter novel climatic conditions when they spread outside of their native ranges. Invading populations can respond to novel conditions by acclimation or adaptation of physiological capacities, which may facilitate their spread. We investigated differences in physiological traits among three populations of an invasive lizard, the brown anole (Anolis sagrei), along the latitudinal extent of its invasion in the southeastern United States. We predicted latitudinal clines for most traits based on models of adaptation to climate. Consistent with the latitudinal cline in temperature and moisture, the mean critical thermal minimum and the mean rate of water loss were lowest for lizards in the northern population. Furthermore, these traits acclimated to either temperature or humidity in a direction consistent with adaptive phenotypic plasticity. By contrast, metabolic rates varied among populations but did not conform to our prediction based on a latitudinal cline in temperature. Critical thermal maxima, endurances, and sprint speeds were similar among populations. Despite the idea that tropical lizards have limited capacity for acclimation, we found variation among invasive populations of brown anoles, which could have partially resulted from acclimation. This physiological variation within the invasive range raises questions about the roles of plasticity and adaptation in the success of the invasion. © 2013 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved

Preying dangerously: black widow spider venom resistance in sympatric lizards

Lizards and spiders are natural adversaries, yet little is known of adaptations that lizards might possess for dealing with the venomous defences of spider prey. In the Western USA, two lizard species (Elgaria multicarinata and Sceloporus occidentalis) are sympatric with and predate western black widow spiders (Latrodectus hesperus). The consequences of black widow spider venom (BWSV) can be severe, and are well understood for mammals but unknown for reptiles. We evaluated potential resistance to BWSV in the lizards that consume black widows, and a potentially susceptible species (Uta stansburiana) known as prey of widows. We investigated BWSV effects on whole-animal performance (sprint) and muscle tissue at two venom doses compared with control injections. Sprint speed was not significantly decreased in E. multicarinata or S. occidentalis in any treatment, while U. stansburiana suffered significant performance reductions in response to BWSV. Furthermore, E. multicarinata showed minimal tissue damage and immune response, while S. occidentalis and U. stansburiana exhibited increased muscle damage and immune system infiltration in response to BWSV. Our data suggest predator–prey relationships between lizards and spiders are complex, possibly leading to physiological and molecular adaptations that allow some lizards to tolerate or overcome the dangerous defences of their arachnid prey

Confirmation bias perpetuates century-old ecological misconception: Evidence against \u27Secretive\u27 behavior of Eastern Spadefoots

Despite a 1944 publication questioning the misconception that Eastern Spadefoots (Scaphiopus holbrookii) and other Scaphiopodidae are \u27secretive\u27 outside of rain-induced migration and breeding aggregations, confirmation bias has perpetuated this fallacy. As a result, S. holbrookii is one of the least studied frogs in the United States. Amassing a large postmetamorphic dataset, we examined the misconception that S. holbrookii are secretive outside of breeding aggregates or optimal environmental conditions. Using eyeshine spotlighting, we conducted transect, mark-recapture, and haphazard spotlighting surveys in Virginia and Rhode Island forests. Although no breeding events or migration occurred during this study, we detected thousands of postmetamorphic S. holbrookii in Virginia and dozens in Rhode Island, the majority of which were subadults-a demographic category severely overlooked in the literature. These results are in direct contradiction with historical surveys of our sites. Spotlighting was an efficient method of detecting S. holbrookii eyeshine in forests, which were easily differentiated from arthropod eyeshine. Minimal effort was needed to detect the presence of S. holbrookii in Virginia and Rhode Island, even though both states have different climates and S. holbrookii densities. We also discovered a previously undetected population in Rhode Island. Scaphiopus holbrookii of all postmetamorphic size classes emerged regularly from burrows, even with no precipitation. We discuss how confirmation bias and lack of appropriate field methods for nonbreeding life history stages has fueled the misconception that S. holbrookii are difficult to find outside of optimal weather conditions, which has hindered progress studying the ecology and conservation of this species