Zuclopenthixol decanoate toxicity

A psychopharmaceutical describes a drug that has an impact on the mental state of the user. These medications are often used preventively to modify the behavioural response to stress in ungulate prey species, for example, to facilitate transportation and/or introduction into a new area, group or herd. Zuclopenthixol is a long-acting neuroleptic (LAN) or antipsychotic agent that has been used to facilitate wildlife translocation in conservation projects. In human medicine, this drug is used to treat psychiatric disorders including schizophrenia and psychosis. It is a long-acting dopamine D1 and D2 receptor antagonist, with a duration of action of 3–4 days (acetate ester) up to 2–3 weeks (decanoate) in wild ungulates, depending on the pharmaceutical formulation (Swan, 1993; Read, 2002).Our understanding of equine behaviour and in particular learning theory, has deepened over the past few years. We now recognise that most problematic behaviours can quickly be resolved with appropriate training (McLean &amp; Christensen, 2017; Pearson, 2019) and this knowedge should markedly reduce the need for psychopharmaceutical use during the routine management of horses. Yet, as this knowledge is still not embedded into mainstream equestrianism, and considering we know most people overestimate their understanding of horse behaviour (Warren-Smith &amp; McGreevy, 2008; Wentworth-Stanley, 2013; Pearson et al., 2020), psychopharmaceuticals remain an attractive option to many. Moreover, some problematic behaviours coincide with marked levels of emotions such as fear, which impairs a horse's ability to learn. By directly reducing fear, judicious psychopharmaceutical use may optimise retraining, improve welfare and maximise safety.<br/

Laparoscopic vs. open adrenalectomy: perioperative data and survival analysis in 70 dogs with an adrenal tumor

Adrenalectomy is the treatment of choice in case of functional adrenal tumors and malignant adrenal incidentalomas. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy (LA) in dogs has gained popularity in recent years, however, clinical studies on large patient populations are scarce. This retrospective study describes perioperative and recurrence data, survival, and prognostic factors in 70 dogs that underwent LA or open adrenalectomy (OA) in our hospital between 2008 and 2022. Diagnosis was based on history, clinical signs, endocrine function tests and advanced diagnostic imaging. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy was performed in 42 dogs (n = 27 naturally occurring hypercortisolism, n = 4 pheochromocytoma, n = 1 pheochromocytoma with concurrent hypercortisolism, n = 10 incidentaloma) and OA in 28 dogs (n = 22 hypercortisolism, n = 3 pheochromocytoma, n = 3 incidentaloma). Bilateral adrenalectomy was performed in 8/70 dogs. Surgical duration of LA and OA did not differ significantly in unilateral and bilateral procedures (P = 0.108 and P = 0.101, respectively). Systemic hypertension occurred in 7/41 and 1/28 dogs during LA and OA, respectively (P = 0.130). Hypotension occurred in 2/41 and 4/28 dogs during LA and OA, respectively (P = 0.214). A total of 40/42 dogs in the LA group and 27/28 in the OA group survived to discharge (P = 0.810). Mean hospital stay was significantly shorter (P = 0.006) after LA (1.5 days, range 1–3) than after OA (2.2 days, range 1–4). No significant differences were demonstrated between LA and OA groups in recurrence of adrenal-dependent endocrine disease (P = 0.332), disease-free period (P = 0.733) and survival time (P = 0.353). The disease-specific 1-, 2- and 3-year survival rates were 95, 89, and 89% after LA and 92, 88, and 81% after OA. Tumor size was significantly associated with the occurrence of a recurrence. In addition, tumor size had a negative effect on the disease-free period and survival time. This study shows a favorable outcome of both LA and OA in dogs. Based on low perioperative complication rate, short hospitalization time and long-term outcomes comparable to OA in selected cases, the less invasive laparoscopic approach is considered the preferred technique

Reporting of anaesthesia and pain management in preclinical large animal models of articular cartilage repair - A long way to go

Animal models continue to be used to investigate cartilage repair strategies. Adequate anaesthesia and pain management are essential in order to guarantee acceptable animal welfare as well as reproducible experimental results. This systematic review evaluates reporting of anaesthesia and pain management in surgical large animal models (horse, pig, dog, goat and sheep) of (osteo)chondral repair. Manuscripts published between 2015 and 2020 were included after a comprehensive search strategy. Data were evaluated using descriptive statistics and qualitative review. Out of 223 eligible studies, 220 studies contained incomplete information on anaesthetic and pain management. Pre-, intra- and post-operative analgesia were not mentioned in 68%, 94%, and 64% of manuscripts respectively. A total of 176 studies reported that animals underwent general anaesthesia during surgery. Surprisingly, 30% of these articles did not provide any detail on anaesthetic management, while 37% reported using inhalant, hypnotic or sedative drugs only, without mention of analgesics. Pain monitoring was not reported in 87% of manuscripts. The vast majority of preclinical large animal studies on cartilage repair did not meet veterinary clinical standards for anaesthesia and analgesia, and failed to report according to the ARRIVE international guidelines. In light of serious welfare, ethical and translational validity concerns, improvement is urgently needed

A Translational Model for Repeated Episodes of Joint Inflammation : Welfare, Clinical and Synovial Fluid Biomarker Assessment

This study investigates repeated low-dose lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injections in equine joints as a model for recurrent joint inflammation and its impact on animal welfare. Joint inflammation was induced in eight horses by injecting 0.25 ng of LPS three times at two-week intervals. Welfare scores and clinical parameters were recorded at baseline and over 168 h post-injection. Serial synoviocentesis was performed for the analysis of a panel of synovial fluid biomarkers of inflammation and cartilage turnover. Clinical parameters and a final synoviocentesis were also performed eight weeks after the last sampling point to assess the recovery of normal joint homeostasis. Statistical methods were used to compare the magnitude of response to each of the 3 LPS inductions and to compare the baseline and final measurements. Each LPS injection produced consistent clinical and biomarker responses, with minimal changes in welfare scores. General matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity and joint circumference showed greater response to the second LPS induction, but response to the third was comparable to the first. Gylcosaminoglycans (GAG) levels showed a significantly decreased response with each induction, while collagen-cleavage neoepitope of type II collagen (C2C) and carboxypropetide of type II collagen epitope (CPII) showed quicker responses to the second and third inductions. All parameters were comparable to baseline values at the final timepoint. In conclusion, a consistent, reliable intra-articular inflammatory response can be achieved with repeated injections of 0.25 ng LPS, with minimal impact on animal welfare, suggesting potential as a refined translational model of recurrent joint inflammation

Laparoscopic vs. open adrenalectomy: perioperative data and survival analysis in 70 dogs with an adrenal tumor

Adrenalectomy is the treatment of choice in case of functional adrenal tumors and malignant adrenal incidentalomas. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy (LA) in dogs has gained popularity in recent years, however, clinical studies on large patient populations are scarce. This retrospective study describes perioperative and recurrence data, survival, and prognostic factors in 70 dogs that underwent LA or open adrenalectomy (OA) in our hospital between 2008 and 2022. Diagnosis was based on history, clinical signs, endocrine function tests and advanced diagnostic imaging. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy was performed in 42 dogs (n = 27 naturally occurring hypercortisolism, n = 4 pheochromocytoma, n = 1 pheochromocytoma with concurrent hypercortisolism, n = 10 incidentaloma) and OA in 28 dogs (n = 22 hypercortisolism, n = 3 pheochromocytoma, n = 3 incidentaloma). Bilateral adrenalectomy was performed in 8/70 dogs. Surgical duration of LA and OA did not differ significantly in unilateral and bilateral procedures (P = 0.108 and P = 0.101, respectively). Systemic hypertension occurred in 7/41 and 1/28 dogs during LA and OA, respectively (P = 0.130). Hypotension occurred in 2/41 and 4/28 dogs during LA and OA, respectively (P = 0.214). A total of 40/42 dogs in the LA group and 27/28 in the OA group survived to discharge (P = 0.810). Mean hospital stay was significantly shorter (P = 0.006) after LA (1.5 days, range 1–3) than after OA (2.2 days, range 1–4). No significant differences were demonstrated between LA and OA groups in recurrence of adrenal-dependent endocrine disease (P = 0.332), disease-free period (P = 0.733) and survival time (P = 0.353). The disease-specific 1-, 2- and 3-year survival rates were 95, 89, and 89% after LA and 92, 88, and 81% after OA. Tumor size was significantly associated with the occurrence of a recurrence. In addition, tumor size had a negative effect on the disease-free period and survival time. This study shows a favorable outcome of both LA and OA in dogs. Based on low perioperative complication rate, short hospitalization time and long-term outcomes comparable to OA in selected cases, the less invasive laparoscopic approach is considered the preferred technique

Methods Used for Endotracheal Tube Cuff Inflation and Pressure Verification in Veterinary Medicine: A Questionnaire on Current Practice

Endotracheal intubation is a routine procedure in veterinary anaesthesia, yet no consensus guidelines exist for endotracheal tube (ETT) cuff inflation and pressure measurement. The aim of this study was to assess current practice of ETT cuff inflation and seal verification in veterinary medicine. An online questionnaire was distributed among veterinary professionals who administer anaesthesia, comprising six demographic and twelve ETT cuff-related questions per species. N = 348 questionnaires were completed. Cuff pressure was measured by 30% of respondents in cats, 32% in dogs and 9% in both farm animals and horses. Anaesthesia diplomates were not more likely to measure cuff pressure than others, except in cats (OR: 1.8; 95% CI: 1.1&ndash;2.9). The most frequently selected recommended range of cuff pressure was 20&ndash;30 cm H2O, regardless of species, although &gt;30 cm H2O was selected significantly more often in horses compared to dogs, cats and farm animals. The preferred technique to verify cuff seal was minimal occlusive volume in dogs, cats and farm animals, whereas in horses, the preferred method was verification of normal capnogram waveform. ETT cuff pressure measurement remains uncommon in veterinary anaesthesia. The development of consensus recommendations for cuff inflation, including evidence-based target cuff pressure ranges for various species and different ETT models or materials, can help to improve practice

Comparison of different methods to calculate venous admixture in anaesthetized horses

Objective The aim of this study was to compare different methods to determine venous admixture (Q_s=Q_t) in anaesthetized horses. The first objective was to estimate Q_s=Q_t using jugular venous blood oxygen content (Q_s=Q_t jugular), and a fixed value for the oxygen extraction (F-shunt). The second objective was to assess the influence of blood pressure and positioning on oxygen extraction. The third objective was to perform regression analysis between jugular and mixed venous blood oxygen tensions. Study design Prospective, experimental trial. Animals The study was performed with seven warmblood horses that were anaesthetized with detomidine, butorphanol, ketamine, diazepam and isoflurane in oxygen. Methods Multiple simultaneous arterial, jugular venous and pulmonary arterial blood samples were taken under normotensive and hypotensive conditions in lateral and dorsal recumbency. Arterial, mixed venous, and end-capillary oxygen content were calculated. Results A significant correlation between Q_s=Q_t and Q_s=Q_t jugular was found [intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) ¼ 0.68, p < 0.001], and BlandeAltman analysis showed a bias of e11.5% and wide limits of agreement (e27.7% to 4.6%). Fshunt significantly correlated with Q_s=Q_t (ICC ¼ 0.88, p < 0.001), and BlandeAltman analysis showed a lower bias (e1.97) and narrower limits of agreement (e13.8% to 9.9%). Positioning and blood pressure significantly influenced oxygen extraction. The regression formula was Y ¼ 0.80X þ 2.61 (where Y is the calculated mixed venous oxygen tension and X is the jugular venous oxygen tension) when outliers were excluded (ICC¼0.82, p < 0.001). Conclusions and clinical relevance This study shows that F-shunt provides reasonable estimates of Q_s=Q_t but can possibly be improved by using simple algorithms without the need for pulmonary arterial catheterization. These algorithms use blood pressure- and positioning-dependent oxygen extraction and regression analysis between jugular venous and pulmonary arterial oxygen tension. Although promising, the validity of these algorithms needs to be determined in future studie

Effect of different inspired fractions of oxygen on F-shunt and arterial partial pressure of oxygen in isoflurane-anaesthetized and mechanically ventilated Shetland ponies

Objective: To determine the effect of fraction of inspired oxygen (FIO2) on intrapulmonary shunt fraction as measured by F-shunt in ponies during isoflurane anaesthesia. Study design: Prospective, randomized clinical study. Animals: A group of 23 adult Shetland ponies undergoing a total of 32 anaesthetic procedures. Methods: Ponies were premedicated intravenously (IV) with detomidine (0.01 mg kg–1) and either morphine (0.1 mg kg–1) or butorphanol (0.02 mg kg–1). Anaesthesia was induced with ketamine (2.2 mg kg–1) and midazolam (0.07 mg kg–1) administered IV. Ponies were randomly allocated to maintenance of anaesthesia with isoflurane in oxygen (group TH; FIO2 = 0.95) or a mixture of oxygen and medical air (group TL; FIO2 = 0.65); all ponies were given a constant rate of infusion of detomidine. Animals were mechanically ventilated to maintain PaCO2 between 40 and 50 mmHg. Arterial blood gas analysis was performed every 30 minutes. The F-shunt equation was calculated for each time point T0, T30, T60 and T90. Data were analysed using linear mixed model analysis and presented as mean ± standard deviation (p < 0.05). Results: PaO2 was greater in group TH than in group TL (TH: 406 ± 90, 438 ± 83, 441 ± 69 and 464 ± 53 mmHg versus TL: 202 ± 90, 186 ± 84, 172 ± 85 and 191 ± 98 mmHg at T0, T30, T60 and T90, respectively; p < 0.0001). In TH, F-shunt was < TL. Significant differences were found at T60 (TH: 13.2% ± 4.3 versus TL: 19.4% ± 8.3; p = 0.016) and T90 (TH: 11.7% ± 3.5 versus TL: 18.6% ± 9.5; p = 0.036). Conclusions and clinical relevance: Our findings do not support a beneficial effect of using a reduced FIO2 to improve oxygenation in anaesthetized and mechanically ventilated Shetland ponies