Enhancing the Feed Capacity of Horticulture Agro-Ecosystem Through Technology for Goat Production

The availability of feed and their efficiency of use throughout the year represent the most important constraint affecting the productivity of animals in any agro-ecosystems. Beside being the largest contributor to the total production cost, logistically feeds need to be available on a daily basis across the animal’s life time. In order to be competitive, goat production system must be directed toward the optimum utilization of inconventional feedstuffs such as crop residues and agro-industrial by-products. The horticulture crops provide various crop-residues and by products from the processing of its main products. These biomass are potential feedstuffs that could be used to support the production of goats. The processing of passion fruits (Passiflora edulis) yield by products such as fruit shells and seeds. These products are good energy and protein sources for growing goats. Oriental radish (Raphanus sativus) by-products composed by damaged root parts and culls have high digestible energy and low ether extract content, but have very high moisture content. The pineapple by-products composed by the peel and bagasse of the fruit could be used as energy source for goats. Other horticulture by-products or residues such as citrus pulp, abandoned citrus fruit, forages from Ipomea batatas are of great potential as feeds for goat production. Preserving technology like ensiling could be implemented in utilising those biomass categorized as wet by-products such as pineapple and oriental radish by-products. The technology of complete feed is an effective means in utilizing some of those products with relatively low palatability or to increase its inclusion level in diets. Introducing shade-tolerant forage species as intercrops such as Stenotaphrum secundatum,  Brachiaria humidicola and Arachis pintoi in the citrus plantation should increase feed capacity of the area. The multi-purpose trees such as Indigofera sp. and Calliandra calothyrsus both are adaptable to the high altitude area are valuable feeds due to their high nutritional quality. Generation of technology that could maximize the utilization of those biomass as feeds for goat production is necessary. Some technologies that are relevant to that purposes including: 1) ensiling with appropriate inoculants that create optimal fermentation to preserve the product and to prolong the aerobic stability of the silages; 2) ensiling with appropiate absorbants for maximum effluent retention, intake and preference of the silage; 3) the utilization of fibrolytic bacteria; 4) utilization of fibrolytic enzymes in complete feed; and 5) supplementation strategy to optimize the rumen function for maximum utilization of basal diets. Because most of the feedstuffs mentioned above relatively vary in their nutritional quality and quantity, it is suggested that feed budget system, which is based on the availability of feed rather than the feeding standard system which is based on the animal’s nutrient requirement is a more relevant feeding system for goat production. Key words: Feeds, horticultures, technology, goat

Research Strategy in Nutrition and Feeding Systems for Meat Goat Production

The capability of ruminant animals, including goats to transform the non-food materials into high quality animal proteins for human consumption through a complex digestive and metabolic system put these animals into a unique position in the food- chain system. However, this comparative advantage is not without cost, since when compared to mono-gastric animals, the ruminant is less efficient in producing every unit of protein or energy from each unit of feed they consumed. Therefore, research programme or technology that aims to improve the efficiency of utilization of the various non-food materials by goats should be the priority. Basically, the research programmes in goat feeding and nutrition should be oriented into the real needs of the potential beneficiaries or users. In accordance to this, it is a pre-requisite to identify and to understand the structure and the characteristics of goat production systems that existed. Most of goat production system in Indonesia is typically small scale operation (92%), which operates in a low input system. It is common that under this type of production system, the flow products such as manure or/and kids  are the main goals. Consequently, the stability of feed supply throught the year to at least maintain the existing population become more important than the quality of feeds that fulfill the standard requirement for nutrients. The research programme for this group of goat production should be oriented to (1) developing production system that guarantees the supply  of  feed  throught  the  year;  (2)  maximizing the  potential  benefit  of  the  “compensatory growth”  phenomenon; (3) minimising the effects of anti nutritional factors contained in various forages. Under the commercial production type that operates in a high input system, the final products such as meat is the main goal. Under this production system the rate of productivity of (growth rate, reproduction rate, feed conversion) of individual animas become very important. The research program for this commercial operation should be oriented into (1) developing of various formulae based on non-conventional feeds; (2) optimising rumen function to support maximum fermentative digestion; (3) optimising the protein/energy ratio in the rumen; (4) stimulating the production of glucogenic volatile fatty acid production in the rumen; (5) manipulating the microbial population in the rumen (defaunation); and (6) stimulating the development and colonization of microbial for fiber fermentation.   Key words: Goats, feeding syste

Supplementation of inorganic and organic zinc mixtures in feed of Boerka goats fed by oil palm fronds

Zinc is an element of many enzymes and hormones having very important physiological functions in the body so that it influences the production and reproduction of animals including the activity of the rumen microflora in degrading fiber in a diet. The aim of this study was to improve the performances of goats offered oil palm fronds based diets through the supplementation of 35 ppm of Zn in the form of inorganic (ZnO) and organic zinc (Zn-methionine). Thirty mature male crossing Boer x Kacang (Boerka) goats were divided into five groups and randomly allocated to one of the five feed treatments as follows: P1: complete feed based on the palm oil fronds (Control), P2: P1 + 35 ppm Zn (100% Zn0), P3: P1 + 35 ppm Zn (75% Zn0 + 25% Zn-methionine), P4: P1 + 35 ppm Zn (50% Zn0 + 50% Zn-methionine), P5: P1 + 35 ppm Zn (25% Zn0 + 75% Zn-methionine). The experiment was conducted in a Completely Randomized Design of six replications. Increasing the proportion of Zn methionine in the mixtures elevated feed consumption, and the highest feed intake was observed in goats received 75% Zn-methionine/25% ZnO. Daily body weight gains was only affected (P0.05) by the 75% Zn-methionine/25% ZnO supplement. The concentration of Zn in the blood increased significantly (P0.05) when Zn methionine was added and it increased steadily as the proportion of Zn methionine greater in the mixtures, but the VFA compositions of the rumen were not affected (P0.05) by Zn supplementation. It is concluded that the performances of goat fed complete diets based on the oil palm fronds could be improved by supplementation of inorganic and organic Zn mixture

The Prospect of Using Complete Feed in Goat Production: A Review on its Utility and Physical Form and Animal Responses

Complete feed is a strategic feeding system that has been widely adopted by the dairy cattle industry, but it has been rarely practised in goat enterprises. The prospect of using complete feed for goat production could be considered from two aspects, namely 1) its relevancy to the goat metabolic requirement, and 2) its potential as an effective means for maximal utilization of crop residues and agro-industrial byproducts as alternative feeds. Metabolically, the higher energy requirement and the lower gut capacity of goats due to its relatively smaller body size make this animal more adapted to feedstuffs with denser nutrient contents as typified by the complete feed. As complete feed is characteristically dry, it has potential to cause hypovolemia and induce later a lower feed consumption when fed to goats. But, this event occurs only during the initial meal and the condition returns to the normal state thereafter. Total saliva secretion tend to decrease by consuming dry feed which can cause parakeratosis, laminitis or acidosis. However, these metabolic disorder could be prevented by formulating complete feed with optimal roughage/concentrate ratio. Review from literatures showed that, when used in complete feed, the inclusion rate of several low palatability crop residues or agro-industrial ranged from 15 to 60%. The roughage/concentrate ratio was in the range of 0.25 to 3.0. Some physical characteristics are important for effective complete feed such as the particle size of roughage, the content of physically effective fibre and the form of the complete feed. Complete feed processed into pellet generally resulted in better performances. The ME and CP content of complete feed used ranged from 1800 to 2800 kcal/kg DM and from 15 to 20%, respectively. The rate of feed intake by goats receiving complete feed ranged from 2.0 to 4.9% BW, the ADG ranged from 40 to 145 g, FCR ranged from 5.2 to 13.0 and DM digestibility ranged from 62 to 81%. These parameters are all influenced by the age and physiological state and the genotype of the goat as well as the physical form and the roughage/concentrate ratio of the complete feed. The carcass quality, characteristics and fatty acid compositions of goat fed complete feed are comparatively similar to those fed conventional feed. It is concluded that complete feed for goat production should be considered as an alternative and effective feeding method to  maximize  the  utilization  of  local  feed  resources.  This  feeding  method  has  huge  potential  for  the  acceleration  of  the development of commercial goat entrepises  in the future in Indonesia.   Key words: Complete feed, goats, physical characteristics, nutritive qualit

Synchrony of Protein and Energy in The Rumen to Maximize The Production of Microbial Protein

Justification for continued use of ruminants for competitive meat production reside in I) their ability to hydrolyse structural carbohydrate (not used by non ruminant animals) as a source of energy, 2) their ability to transform non protein nitrogen substances into ruminal microbial protein, and 3) their ability to use microbial protein as their main protein sources for production . Through fermentation in the rumen, microbial protein supply 70-100 percent of total protein available and 70-85 percent of energy to the animal . Therefore, the role of efficient rumen fermentation to yield microbial protein is vital to the ruminants . Fermentation efficiency does not only depend on the nutrient contents of the diets, but is strongly influenced by the rate of degradation of the nutrients in the rumen, particularly protein and carbohydrate (CHO) . Significant improvement in the fermentation efficiency could be achieved when protein and energy (CI-IO) degradations occur in harmony (synchrony) during the fermentation period . The Cornell system could be used in accommodating the synchrony of protein and energy degradation in ration formulation . For this, fractionation of CHO and protein based on their degradability is required . This system fractionates the CFIO into fraction A (fastly degraded), fraction B I ( intermediate), fraction B2 (slowly degraded) and fraction C (not degraded) . The same fractionation is applied to protein nainely fraction A (soluble ; non protein nitrogen), fraction B t (soluble protein), fraction B2 (mostly degradable protein), fraction B3 (not degradable protein) and fraction C (not available protein) . Alternatively, synchronization of protein and CHO degradation in ration formulation could use Synchronization Index (SI) as an i ndicator . S I describes the ratio between the degradation of N and organic matter (OM) or CHO . St of 1 .0 indicates perfect synchrony, while SI1 .0 indicates the degree of asynchrony . Data on the degradation rate of protein and CHO of agricultural wastes or by-products as well as agroindustry by-products in Indonesia is very limited . It is urged to develop the data base on these degradation characteristics in order to fully use the phenomenon of protein and energy synchrony to formulate rations based on the locally available feedstuffs . Key words : Synchronization, energy . protein, fermentation, efficienc

Development of Goat - Palm Oil Integrated Production System : An Assessment Based on Feed Availability and Nutrient Requirements

The integration of goats and palm oil plantation is prospective agricultural production systems that exploit the complement relationship among various components in the system . The main components are the oil palm trees, vegetation underneath the trees, processing plant of palm oil bunch, and the goat . The estimation of carrying capacity of the plantation system is based on the quantitative analysis on nutrient supply from various feed resources in the plantation system and nutrient requirements for goat production . The goat demographic parameters, such as, prolificacy, fertility and fecundity are used to estimate the goat population size, dynamics and structures . The development of production model could be based on a certain production target, such as the number of animals sold or the amount of income (demand driven approach), or based on the availability of certain resources such as feed supply (supply driven approach) . Using the demand driven approach, and considering 6000 heads of oneyear old goats to fill the Malaysian market as the production target, it is calculated that a population size of 3,636 does and 810 ha of palm oil plantation are required to meet this production target . In a typically medium-size oil palm plantation system (500 ha of oil palm plantation) with one unit of small-scale palm oil bunch processing plant ( l ton/hour), the potency to supply metabolisable energy from various feed resources in the system is 2,778,800 Mcal/year, equivalent to a carrying capacity of 5,155 Goat Units/year . This system could carry 2,951 does and 295 bucks to produce 1,116 heads of one-year old goats annually . A medium-size oil palm plantation without processing plant unit, is potential in supplying metabolisable energy of 1,983,300 Mcal/year, equivalent to a carrying capacity of 3,680 Goat Units/year . In order to fill the export market to Malaysia, a number of 10 units of medium sized plantation with small scale plant processing or a number of 17 units medium scale plantation without processing unit are required . Using similar approach, the potential of either large-scale or small-scale plantation system to produce goat in an integrated-production system could be estimated . Key words : Integration, palm oil plantation, carrying capacity, goa

The Utilization of Indigofera sp as the sole foliage in goat diets supplemented with high carbohydrate or high protein concentrates

Indigofera sp is a tree leguminous forage species known to be adaptable to the drought climate and saline soil and so it has potential as alternative feed resource to support the ruminant animal production. This study aimed to study the  responses of goats fed Indigofera sp as the sole foliages in their diets. Twenty male Boer x Kacang crossbred goats  (6 months of age;16 ± 2,1 kg BW) were randomly assigned to four dietary treatments containing fresh or wilted leaves of Indigifera sp. as the sole foliages and supplemented with high carbohydrate (HCC) or protein (HPC)concentrates. Consumable parts i.e. leaves and twigs of about 8 to 10 months of age of Indigofera sp. were harvested by hand plucking every day in the morning. The experiment was a 2 x 2 factorial design arranged in a completely randomized design. The ruminal pH ranged from 6.14-6.85 and were  not affected (P 0.05) by wilting nor by the type of concentrates. Wilting did not affect (P 0.05) the concentration of  ruminal NH3-N, but  it was significantly higher (P 0.05) in HPC group (32.36-32.54 mg dL-1) than those in HCC group(17.94-23.57 mg dL-1). Total VFA concentration were not affected by wilting  nor by the type of concentrates  (P 0.05). Goats in the HCC group,however,numerically have higher total VFA concentration (178.5-183.75 mmol L-1) than those in the HPC group (142.21-174.64 mmol L-1). The apparent digestibility coeficients  of DM, OM, CP and energy of the diet were not different (P 0.05) when contained wilted or fresh Indigofera foliage.  Significant increases (P 0.05)   in the DM and  OM, but not in the CP and energy  apparent digestibility coeficients were observed in the HPC goats. Dry matter intakes were not different (P 0.05) among dietary treatments, but the ADG of goats in the HCC group (60-63 g d-1) were significantly lower (P 0.05) than those  of goats in the HPC treatment (80-87 g d-1). Blood glucosa concentration was not affected by wilting nor by type of concentrates (P 0.05).  BUN was not affected by wilting process, but providing high protein concentrates significantly (P 0.05) increased the BUN concentration. It is concluded that foliage of Indigofera sp could be used as the sole forage in intensive production of goats. Wilting the foliage prior to feeding seemed to be unnecessary, since this process does not improve the animal productivity in term of daily gain and efficiency of feed utilization. Key Words: Indigofera sp, Supplements,  Ruminal Fermentation, Goat

Growth and feed utilization of Boer x Kacang crossbred goats offered total mixed rations of different protein and energy levels

The aim of this study was to evaluate the growth of and feed utilization by Boer x Kacang crosses goats fed on total mixed ration differing in protein and energy levels. Four total mixed rations combination were formulated to contain 16 and 18% crude protein and 2650 and 2850 Kcal ME/ kg DM (dried matter) energy density. Twenty-eight male Boer x Kacang crosses goats (14.5 ± 1.14 kg) and of age ranging from 4 to 5 months were randomly allocated to one of these four TMRs (total mixed rations) (7 animals/TMR). The effects of dietary treatment were assessed using the general linear model and significance of the diet effects was detected using Duncan’s multiple range test. Dry matter intake increased as metabolizable energy density of diet increased from 2650 to 2850 Kcal/kg DM, but it is not affected by increasing crude protein level from 16 to 18%. The average daily gains were not improved (P0.05) as the crude protein levels and metabolizable energy density of diet increased. Crude protein levels and ME density did not affect (P0.05) the DM, OM and energy digestibility, but NDF digestibility was affected by the ME density of diets (P0.05). Daily N intakes were greater (P0.0%) in goats received diets higher in the crude protein and metabolizable energy levels. At this high rate of feed intake this type of goats are able to gain optimally when offered feed with crude protein level of 16% and metabolizable energy density of 2850 Kcal/kg DM