Is the EU a normative power in the field of conflict transformation? The cases of Cyprus and Kosovo

The main aim of this dissertation is to test the extent to which the EU is a normative power in the field of conflict transformation. Although much has been written on Normative Power Europe (NPE), the concept is still empirically under-explored. This dissertation, therefore, applies the NPE analytical framework to explore the EU’s role in Cyprus and Kosovo. Specifically, a three-part framework is used which analyses the EU’s goals, means and impact. The contribution of this thesis to the existing literature is twofold. Firstly, the application of the NPE framework offers a fresh theoretical perspective regarding the EU’s role in conflict transformation. Secondly, the empirical focus of this research allows for conclusions to be drawn for the ways norms can be spread in cases of ethnic conflict and for the ways local conditions can potentially hamper the internalisation of norms. The main argument of this thesis is that the EU’s normative power in the field of conflict transformation can be challenged by reference to dichotomies that are important within the NPE analytical framework like, for example, normative interests versus materialistic interests, persuasion versus coercion and genuine internalisation of norms versus instrumental behaviour on the part of local actors. This dissertation is divided into seven chapters. Following the introduction, the second chapter discusses the NPE concept and presents the theoretical framework of the thesis. The third chapter provides the historical context of the two conflict cases. Then, the next three chapters focus on applying the NPE framework to the two cases. Each chapter is concerned with one of the three dimensions of the analytical framework (goals, means and impact). Lastly, chapter seven summarises the main argument and reflects on its methodological and theoretical implications

Production of spherical mesoporous molecularly imprinted polymer particles containing tunable amine decorated nanocavities with CO2 molecule recognition properties

Novel spherical molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) particles containing amide-decorated nanocavities with CO2 recognition properties in the poly[acrylamide-co-(ethyleneglycol dimethacrylate)] mesoporous matrix were synthesized by suspension polymerization using oxalic acid and acetonitrile/toluene as dummy template and porogen mixture, respectively. The particles had a maximum BET surface area, SBET, of 457 m2/g and a total mesopore volume of 0.92 cm3/g created by phase separation between the copolymer and porogenic solvents. The total volume of the micropores (d < 2 nm) was 0.1 cm3/g with two sharp peaks at 0.84 and 0.85 nm that have not been detected in non-imprinted polymer material. The degradation temperature at 5% weight loss was 240–255 °C and the maximum equilibrium CO2 adsorption capacity was 0.56 and 0.62 mmol/g at 40 and 25 °C, respectively, and 0.15 bar CO2 partial pressure. The CO2 adsorption capacity was mainly affected by the density of CO2-philic NH2 groups in the polymer network and the number of nanocavities. Increasing the content of low-polar solvent (toluene) in the organic phase prior to polymerization led to higher CO2 capture capacity due to stronger hydrogen bonds between the template and the monomer during complex formation. Under the same conditions, molecularly imprinted particles showed much higher CO2 capture capacity compared to their non-imprinted counterparts. The volume median diameter (73–211 μm) and density (1.3 g/cm3) of the produced particles were within the range suitable for CO2 capture in fixed and fluidized bed systems

Porous electrospun polycaprolactone (PCL) fibres by phase separation

The effect of different binary solvent systems on the size and surface morphology of electrospun poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) fibres was investigated in this study. Chloroform (CF), dichloromethane (DCM), tetrahydrofuran (THF) and formic acid (FA) were used in mixtures with dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) in order to generate pores on the fibre surface, through a non-solvent induced phase separation mechanism. The production of porous, bead free fibres with an average diameter ranging from 1470 to 2270 nm was achieved using 12.5% w/v PCL in CF/DMSO solution with good/poor solvent ratios varying from 75-90% v/v at the applied voltage of 15 kV, a spinning distance of 20 cm, and the feed flow rate of 1 ml/h. DCM and THF were proven to be less suitable good solvents for the process due to the formation of a solid skin on the jet surface, caused by the limited diffusivity of the polymer molecules from the jet surface to the liquid core and its subsequent collapse. FA was found to be unsuitable due to its similar evaporation rate to DMSO. The pore formation was favoured at high good/poor solvent ratios, whereas, the production of fibres with ribbon cross sections or fibres with beads was more pronounced at low good/poor solvent ratios. Data fitting was used for the development of a second order polynomial equation, correlating the produced fibre average diameter to the solution parameters (conductivity, surface tension, and viscosity), for the given polymer and solvent systems, under the specific experimental conditions used in this study. The ternary mixture compositions that lead to the formation of porous fibres were mapped on a ternary graph

Porous electrospun polycaprolactone fibres: Effect of process parameters

The effect of electrospinning process parameters (solution flow rate, applied voltage, spinning distance) on the size and surface morphology of porous electrospun poly(ε-caprolactone) was investigated in this study. Response surface methodology was implemented for the design and conduction of electrospinning experiments. The feed solution was a 12.5% w/v poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) solution in a binary solvent mixture of 90%v/v chloroform/ dimethyl sulfoxide. Spinning distance of 10-25 cm, applied voltage of 10-25 kV and feed flow rate of 0.5-5 ml/h were the range of limiting values of the independent variables used for the development of a central composite design. Second order polynomial equations, correlating electrospinning process parameters to relative pore coverage and fibre average diameter were developed and validated. An increase in any of the electrospinning process parameters favoured pore formation and fibre diameter increase. Under the experimental conditions investigated, the relative pore surface coverage was 15.8-31.9% and the average fibre diameter was in the range of 1.6-3.3 μm. Applied voltage was proven to be the parameter with the strongest impact on both, fibre diameter and surface morphology

New carbon capture materials: Novel approaches to post-combustion CO2 capture

The most commercially viable capture method in carbon capture and storage (CCS) has been attributed to post-combustion carbon capture using chemical solvents. Although the conventional chemical solvents such as MEA solutions have high selectivity and capture capacity, they are highly corrosive and required high regeneration energy. In addition, volatilisation of MEA at elevated temperature and its release to the atmosphere can lead to major human and environment concerns. In this study two alternative carbon capture materials have been investigated

Synthesis of CO2 capture materials via innovative emulsification routes

Synthesis of CO2 capture materials via innovative emulsification route

Production of molecularly imprinted polymer particles with amide-decorated cavities for CO2 capture using membrane emulsification/suspension polymerisation

Highly uniform amide-based molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) particles containing CO2-philic cavities decorated with amide groups were produced using membrane emulsification and subsequent suspension polymerisation. The organic phase containing acrylamide (functional monomer), oxalic acid (dummy template), ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (crosslinker) and azobisisobutyronitrile (initiator) dissolved in a 50/50 mixture (by volume) of acetonitrile and toluene (porogenic solvents) was injected through a microengineered nickel membrane with a pore diameter of 20 μm and a pore spacing of 200 μm into agitated 0.5 wt% aqueous solution of poly(vinyl alcohol) to form droplets that have been polymerised at 60 °C for 3 h. The volume median diameter of the droplets was controlled between 35 and 158 μm by shear stress at the membrane surface. The droplets maintained their physical stability during storage for 4 weeks and their size was independent of the dispersed phase content. The particle size after polymerisation was consistent with the initial droplet size. The particles were stable up to 210 °C and had a specific surface area of 239 m2/g and a CO2 capture capacity of 0.59 mmol/g at 273 K and 0.15 bar CO2 partial pressure

Conductive PANI fibres and determining factors for the electrospinning window

Polyaniline doped with CSA / PEO conductive nanofibres were produced by electrospinning. The electrospinning window was determined by using a three level, full factorial experimental design. The combined effects of the humidity, voltage and flow rate on the fibre morphology and diameter were examined demonstrating that the ambient humidity is the critical factor affecting the electrospinning process and determining the electrospinning window for a conductive polymer. Low humidity favors the formation of defect free fibres while high humidity either hinders fibre formation or causes the formation of defects on the fibres either due to jet discharge or due to water absorption and phase separation. High level of doping with CSA led to the formation of crystalline structures. Data fitting was used to explore the behavior of conductive polymers in electrospinning and very good agreement between experimental and theoretical predictions was obtained for only a limited range of experimental conditions, whereas deviation was observed for all other sets of conditions

Electrospun poly lactic acid (PLA) fibres: effect of different solvent systems on fibre morphology and diameter

The selection of an appropriate non-hazardous solvent or solvent system is essential to determine the rheological properties and electrospinnability of the solution, the productivity, and the morphology of nanofibres. In this study, poly lactic acid (PLA) solutions were prepared in various pure solvents and binary-solvent systems to investigate the effect of different solution properties on nanofibre morphology and diameter. Viscosity, conductivity and surface tension of each solution were measured. Nanofibre morphology was observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Of all the solvent systems used acetone/dimethylformamide gave the highest fibre productivity and finest defect-free nanofibres. Therefore this solvent system was studied in more detail, varying the solvent ratio. Also the polymer concentration in this solvent system was varied to investigate the effect on nanofibre morphology and solution properties. Morphological investigations were done in correlation with rheological measurements: beaded nanofibrous structures were collected from solutions with concentration around the critical chain entanglement concentration (Ce), while defect-free nanofibres were produced when the concentration was increased to about twice the entanglement concentration. Further investigation of the effect of the PLA concentration on the elastic (G′) and the plastic (G″) moduli showed a sudden increase of the elastic moduli (G′) at the critical chain entanglement concentration. The results showed that the solvent properties, boiling point, viscosity, conductivity and surface tension, have a significant effect on process productivity, morphology and diameter distribution of the PLA nanofibres

Assessing the increase in specific surface area for electrospun fibrous network due to pore induction

The effect of pore induction on increasing electrospun fibrous network specific surface area was investigated in this study. Theoretical models based on the available surface area of the fibrous network and exclusion of the surface area lost due to fibre-to-fibre contacts, were developed. The models for calculation of the excluded area are based on Hertzian, Derjaguin-Muller-Toporov (DMT) and Johnson-Kendall-Roberts (JKR) contact models. Overall, the theoretical models correlated the network specific surface area to the material properties including density, surface tension, Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio as well as network physical properties such as density and geometrical characteristics including fibre radius, fibre aspect ratio and network thickness. Pore induction proved to increase the network specific surface area up to 52%, compared to the maximum surface area that could be achieved by non-porous fibre network with the same physical properties and geometrical characteristics. The model based on Johnson-Kendall-Roberts contact model describes accurately the fibre-to-fibre contact area under the experimental conditions used for pore generation. The experimental results and the theoretical model based on Johnson-Kendall-Roberts contact model show that the increase in network surface area due to pore induction can reach to up to 58%