Geochemistry of the Late Cretaceous Pandan Formation in Cebu Island, Central Philippines: Sediment Contributions From the Australian Plate Margin During the Mesozoic

The Late Cretaceous Pandan Formation in Cebu Island is one of the oldest sedimentary units in the Central Philippines. The inconsistencies in geological descriptions and interpretation of the depositional environment of the Pandan Formation complicated efforts to determine the origin and tectonic history of the basement of Cebu Island. This study therefore looks into the petrological and geochemical characteristics of the Pandan Formation and their implications for the tectonic development of the Philippine Arc during the late Mesozoic. Petrographic analyses indicate significant contribution from mafic sources with additional inputs from felsic rocks, siliciclastics and metamorphic sources. Enrichment of detrital quartz from felsic volcanic and plutonic rocks, as well as from siliciclastic and metamorphic sources, has shifted the SiO2 composition of the Pandan clastics from a mafic to a more intermediate source. Whole-rock geochemical analyses revealed low SiO2/Al2O3 = 4.21, low K2O/Na2O = 1.16, low Th/Sc = 0.13, low Th/U = 2.78, high La/Th = 4.51, significantly low REEs = ca 76.45 ppm and low LaN/YbN = 4.28. A slight negative chondrite-normalized Eu/Eu* (0.91) anomaly and significantly high PAAS-normalized positive Eu/Eu* (1.39) values are consistent with derivation from a young undissected magmatic arc terrane. Tectonic discrimination diagrams suggest formation in an oceanic island arc to active margin/collision zone modelled to be located at the oceanic leading edge of Australia. Rapid uplift and erosion of the magmatic arc and older allochthonous blocks gave way to the rapid deposition of the Pandan Formation in the Late Cretaceous at the subequatorial region

Epithermal Mineralization of the Bonanza-Sandy Vein System, Masara Gold District, Mindanao, Philippines

The Masara Gold District in southeastern Mindanao island is an area of prolific hydrothermal copper and gold mineralization. This study documents the mineralization characteristics of the NW-trending Bonanza-Sandy epithermal veins to constrain possible hydrothermal fluid sources and ore-forming mechanisms. Epithermal mineralization in the NW veins is divided into three main stages: Stage 1 - massive quartz-sulfide; Stage 2 - massive to amorphous quartz-carbonate (calcite); and Stage 3 - colloform-cockade quartz-carbonate (bladed rhodochrosite). Stage 1 is the main gold mineralization phase, with chalcopyrite, pyrite, sphalerite and galena occurring with native gold and tellurides. Stages 2 and 3 contain invisible gold in the sphalerite, galena, pyrite and chalcopyrite. The deposit exhibits mineralization characteristics typical of intermediate sulfidation epithermal deposits based on the dominant chalcopyrite-pyrite mineral assemblage; illite-muscovite-chlorite alteration mineralogy that point to neutral pH conditions; and sphalerite composition of 2.26 to 8.72 mol% FeS in Stage 1 and 0.55 to 1.13 mol% FeS in Stage 2. The K-Ar age date of illite separates from highly altered diorite porphyry of the Lamingag Intrusive Complex yielded an Early Pliocene age (5.12 ± 0.16 Ma). Hydrothermal fluid exsolved from the magma that formed the Lamingag Intrusive Complex probably formed the ore-forming Stage 1 veins. Stages 2 and 3 involved the deposition of quartz and carbonate veins possibly by boiling hydrothermal fluids. Precious and base metal deposition was controlled by the Masara Fault Zone. Exploration markers for gold mineralization in the Masara Gold District and vicinity include the presence of Lamingag Intrusive Complex and massive sulfide veins

Mineralization parameters and exploration targeting for gold- copper deposits in the Baguio (Luzon) and Pacific Cordillera (Mindanao) Mineral Districts, Philippines: A review

The Baguio Mineral District in Luzon, Philippines is known to host several world-class epithermal gold – porphyry copper deposits. The interplay of tectonic setting, magma composition, structural control and hydrothermal systems contributed to the generation of these deposits. Ridge subduction (Scarborough seamount) resulting to flat subduction and a transpressional regime could also be related to the formation of epithermal gold - porphyry copper deposits in Baguio. Subduction processes leading to the formation of calc-alkaline rocks associated with high water pressure, oxygen fugacity and late sulfur saturation are almost always associated with the gold-copper deposits in the district. Compared to the Baguio Mineral District, less exploration work, mine development and production were done in the Pacific Cordillera Mineral District, Mindanao in southern Philippines. It is worth noting, however, that both mineral districts show similarities and overlapping features in terms of geological, geophysical and geochemical characteristics. This leads one to conclude that the Pacific Cordillera Mineral District has ore deposits waiting to be discovered

Mineral Chemistry, Fluid Inclusion and Stable Isotope Studies of the Suyoc Epithermal Veins: Insights to Au-Cu Mineralization in Southern Mankayan Mineral District, Philippines

The Suyoc prospect is an epithermal vein-type mineralization located at the southern part of the Mankayan Mineral District, Northern Luzon, Philippines. The prospect’s epithermal veins are hosted in volcaniclastic rocks and conglomerate, which belong to the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene Balili Formation and the Middle to Late Miocene Suyoc Conglomerate, respectively. These veins are classified into three major types: quartz vein, quartz-sulfide vein, and quartz-carbonate vein. The quartz vein exhibits massive and cockade textures associated with pyrite + chalcopyrite. The quartz-sulfide vein consists of massive and comb quartz associated with pyrite + chalcopyrite + sphalerite. The quartz-carbonate vein has massive quartz associated with rhodochrosite and chalcopyrite + sphalerite + galena + Au/Ag ± bournonite. In addition, massive gypsum ± pyrite occurs as a minor vein-type. Fluid inclusion measurements in quartz from the three major vein-types revealed 230–250 °C formation temperatures and 1.0–3.5 wt. % NaCl equivalent salinity, which are values consistent with epithermal deposits. Quartz textures (e.g., massive, cockade, comb, crustiform) and dominance of liquid-rich fluid inclusions do not suggest that boiling is a primary mechanism of vein deposition. Possible mechanisms are inferred as meteoric water dilution based on homogenization versus salinity trend in quartz vein and presence of rhodochrosite in quartz-carbonate vein, and wall rock interaction based on FeS trend in sphalerite crystals of the quartz-carbonate vein. The presence of pyrite and chalcopyrite in the major vein-types and the FeS mole percent values (0.51 to 8.30) in quartz-carbonate vein indicate an intermediate sulfidation state. The alteration minerals illite, chlorite, pyrite and quartz indicate near-neutral pH condition. δ34S values, which vary from −1.1 to +3.9‰, suggest reduced condition when compared to the representative bulk δ34S value for the Mankayan Mineral District. The characteristics and conditions strongly indicate an intermediate sulfidation epithermal (ISE) style of mineralization. Moreover, the δDwater (−63 to −66‰) and δ18Owater (−3.9 to −1.1‰) values from the major vein-types suggest late stage formation in a magmatic-hydrothermal system similar to other ISE deposits in the Northern Luzon Segment (e.g., Victoria, Acupan and Antamok). Given these, the presence of the Suyoc ISE veins in the underexplored southern part of the Mankayan Mineral District implies potential presence of undiscovered cogenetic porphyry Cu and high sulfidation epithermal mineralization in the area

Characterization of the proto-Philippine Sea Plate: Evidence from the emplaced oceanic lithospheric fragments along eastern Philippines

The proto-Philippine Sea Plate (pPSP) has been proposed by several authors to account for the origin of the Mesozoic supra-subduction ophiolites along the Philippine archipelago. In this paper, a comprehensive review of the ophiolites in the eastern portion of the Philippines is undertaken. Available data on the geology, ages and geochemical signatures of the oceanic lithospheric fragments in Luzon (Isabela, Lagonoy in Camarines Norte, and Rapu-Rapu island), Central Philippines (Samar, Tacloban, Malitbog and Southeast Bohol), and eastern Mindanao (Dinagat and Pujada) are presented. Characteristics of the Halmahera Ophiolite to the south of the Philippines are also reviewed for comparison. Nearly all of the crust-mantle sequences preserved along the eastern Philippines share Early to Late Cretaceous ages. The geochemical signatures of mantle and crustal sections reflect both mid-oceanic ridge and supra-subduction signatures. Although paleomagnetic information is currently limited to the Samar Ophiolite, results indicate a near-equatorial Mesozoic supra-subduction zone origin. In general, correlation of the crust-mantle sequences along the eastern edge of the Philippines reveal that they likely are fragments of the Mesozoic pPSP

Slab rollback and microcontinent subduction in the evolution of the Zambales Ophiolite Complex (Philippines): A review

New radiolarian ages show that the island arc-related Acoje block of the Zambales Ophiolite Complex is possibly of Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous age. Radiometric dating of its plutonic and volcanic-hypabyssal rocks yielded middle Eocene ages. On the other hand, the paleontological dating of the sedimentary carapace of the transitional mid-ocean ridge – island arc affiliated Coto block of the ophiolite complex, together with isotopic age datings of its dikes and mafic cumulate rocks, also yielded Eocene ages. This offers the possibility that the Zambales Ophiolite Complex could have: (1) evolved from a Mesozoic arc (Acoje block) that split to form a Cenozoic back-arc basin (Coto block), (2) through faulting, structurally juxtaposed a Mesozoic oceanic crust with a younger Cenozoic lithospheric fragment or (3) through the interplay of slab rollback, slab break-off and, at a later time, collision with a microcontinent fragment, caused the formation of an island arc-related ophiolite block (Acoje) that migrated trench-ward resulting into the generation of a back-arc basin (Coto block) with a limited subduction signature. This Meso-Cenozoic ophiolite complex is compared with the other oceanic lithosphere fragments along the western seaboard of the Philippines in the context of their evolution in terms of their recognized environments of generation