Yellow fever in Brazil: thoughts and hypotheses on the emergence in previously free areas

This article describes and discusses factors associated to the reemergence of yellow fever and its transmission dynamics in the states of São Paulo (Southeastern Brazil) and Rio Grande do Sul (Southern) during 2008 and 2009. The following factors have played a pivotal role for the reemergence of yellow fever in these areas: large susceptible human population; high prevalence of vectors and primary hosts (non-human primates); favorable climate conditions, especially increased rainfall; emergence of a new genetic lineage; and circulation of people and/or monkeys infected by virus. There is a need for an effective surveillance program to prevent the reemergence of yellow fever in other Brazilian states

Febre amarela Yellow fever

A febre amarela é doenca infecciosa não-contagiosa causada por um arbovírus mantido em ciclos silvestres em que macacos atuam como hospedeiros amplificadores e mosquitos dos gêneros Aedes na África, e Haemagogus e Sabethes na América, são os transmissores. Cerca de 90% dos casos da doença apresentam-se com formas clínicas benignas que evoluem para a cura, enquanto 10% desenvolvem quadros dramáticos com mortalidade em torno de 50%. O problema mostra-se mais grave em África onde ainda há casos urbanos. Nas Américas, no período de 1970-2001, descreveram-se 4.543 casos. Os países que mais diagnosticaram a doença foram o Peru (51,5%), a Bolívia (20,1%) e o Brasil (18,7%). Os métodos diagnósticos utilizados incluem a sorologia (IgM), isolamento viral, imunohistoquímica e RT-PCR. A zoonose não pode ser erradicada, mas, a doença humana é prevenível mediante a vacinação com a amostra 17D do vírus amarílico. A OMS recomenda nova vacinação a cada 10 anos. Neste artigo são revistos os principais conceitos da doença e os casos de mortes associados à vacina.<br>Yellow fever is an infectious and non-contagious disease caused by an arbovirus, the yellow fever virus. The agent is maintained in jungle cycles among primates as vertebrate hosts and mosquitoes, especially Aedes in Africa, and Haemagogus and Sabethes in America. Approximately 90% of the infections are mild or asymptomatic, while 10% course to a severe clinical picture with 50% case-fatality rate. Yellow fever is largely distributed in Africa where urban epidemics are still reported. In South America, between 1970-2001, 4,543 cases were reported, mostly from Peru (51.5%), Bolivia (20.1%) and Brazil (18.7%). The disease is diagnosed by serology (detection of IgM), virus isolation, immunohistochemistry and RT-PCR. Yellow fever is a zoonosis and cannot be eradicated, but it is preventable in man by using the 17D vaccine. A single dose is enough to protect an individual for at least 10 years, after which revaccination is recommended. In this paper, the main concepts about yellow fever as well as the fatal adverse effects of the vaccine are updated

Detoxification enzymes associated with insecticide resistance in laboratory strains of Anopheles arabiensis of different geographic origin

BACKGROUND: The use of insecticides to control malaria vectors is essential to reduce the prevalence of malaria and as a result, the development of insecticide resistance in vector populations is of major concern. Anopheles arabiensis is one of the main African malaria vectors and insecticide resistance in this species has been reported in a number of countries. The aim of this study was to investigate the detoxification enzymes that are involved in An. arabiensis resistance to DDT and pyrethroids. METHODS: The detoxification enzyme profiles were compared between two DDT selected, insecticide resistant strains of An. arabiensis, one from South Africa and one from Sudan, using the An. gambiae detoxification chip, a boutique microarray based on the major classes of enzymes associated with metabolism and detoxification of insecticides. Synergist assays were performed in order to clarify the roles of over-transcribed detoxification genes in the observed resistance phenotypes. In addition, the presence of kdr mutations in the colonies under investigation was determined. RESULTS: The microarray data identifies several genes over-transcribed in the insecticide selected South African strain, while in the Sudanese population, only one gene, CYP9L1, was found to be over-transcribed. The outcome of the synergist experiments indicate that the over-transcription of detoxification enzymes is linked to deltamethrin resistance, while DDT and permethrin resistance are mainly associated with the presence of the L1014F kdr mutation. CONCLUSIONS: These data emphasise the complexity associated with resistance phenotypes and suggest that specific insecticide resistance mechanisms cannot be extrapolated to different vector populations of the same species