Exploiting Thermochronology to Quantify Exhumation Histories and Patterns of Uplift Along the Margins of Tibet

The utilization of thermal-chronological data to constrain mountain building processes exploits the links among rock uplift, exhumation, and cooling during orogenesis. Conceptually, periods of rapid uplift and associated denudation will lead to cooling of rocks as they approach Earth’s surface. The linkage between uplift and exhumation can be complex, but in practice exhumation is often assumed to directly track uplift. The reconstruction of temperature-time histories via thermochronologic systems provides a proxy method to relate the cooling of rock as it is exhumed toward the surface to orogenesis. For the rapid exhumation rates that can occur in active orogenic systems the thermal history will be complex as a result of heat advection, rates of propagation of thermal perturbations, and other processes that affect the cooling behavior. These effects become amplified as exhumation rates increase, and in regions experiencing exhumation rates greater than ∼0.2–0.3 mm/yr (0.2–0.3 km/Ma) simple assumptions of cooling through a constant geotherm will bias the subsequent interpretation. Here we explore, through a suite of generalized models, the impact of exhumation rate and duration on the resulting thermal history and apparent age results. We then apply lessons from these simple exhumation systems to data sets from the high-relief ranges along the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau to determine exhumation histories constrained by those data. The resulting exhumation histories provide constraints on the onset of Cenozoic exhumation, the subsequent pace of exhumation, and on the tectonic history of one of the major fault systems in the central Longmen Shan

Mid-Miocene to Present Upper-Plate Deformation of the Southern Cascadia Forearc: Effects of the Superposition of Subduction and Transform Tectonics

The southern Cascadia forearc undergoes a three-stage tectonic evolution, each stage involving different combinations of tectonic drivers, that produce differences in the upper-plate deformation style. These drivers include subduction, the northward migration of the Mendocino triple junction and associated thickening and thinning related to the Mendocino Crustal Conveyor (MCC) effect, and the NNW translation of the Sierra Nevada-Great Valley (SNGV) block. We combine geodetic data, plate reconstructions, seismic tomography and topographic observations to determine how the southern Cascadia upper plate is deforming in response to the combined effects of subduction and NNW-directed (MCC- and SNGV-related) tectonic processes. The location of the terrane boundaries between the relatively weak Franciscan complex and the stronger Klamath Mountain province (KMP) and SNGV block has been a key control on the style of upper-plate deformation in the southern Cascadia forearc since the mid-Miocene. At ∼15 Ma, present-day southern Cascadia was in central Cascadia and deformation there was principally controlled by subduction processes. Since ∼5 Ma, this region of the Cascadia upper plate, where the KMP lies inboard of the Franciscan complex, has been deforming in response to both subduction and MCC- and SNGV-related effects. GPS data show that the KMP is currently moving to the NNW at ∼8–12 mm/yr with little internal deformation, largely in response to the northward push of the SNGV block at its southern boundary. In contrast, the Franciscan complex is accommodating high NNW-directed and NE-directed shortening strain produced by MCC-related shortening and subduction coupling respectively. This composite tectonic regime can explain the style of faulting within and west of the KMP. Associated with this Mendocino Crustal Conveyor crustal thickening, seismic tomography imagery shows a region of low velocity material that we interpret to represent crustal flow and injection of Franciscan crust into the KMP at intracrustal levels. We suggest that this MCC-related crustal flow and injection of material into the KMP is a relatively young feature (post ∼5 Ma) and is driving a rejuvenated period of rock uplift within the KMP. This scenario provides a potential explanation for steep channels and high relief, suggestive of rapid erosion rates within the interior of the KMP

Relationship between outer forearc subsidence and plate boundary kinematics along the Northeast Japan convergent margin

Tectonic erosion along convergent plate boundaries, whereby removal of upper plate material along the subduction zone interface drives kilometer-scale outer forearc subsidence, has been purported to explain the evolution of nearly half the world's subduction margins, including part of the history of northeast Japan. Here, we evaluate the role of plate boundary dynamics in driving forearc subsidence in northeastern Japan. A synthesis of newly updated analyses of outer forearc subsidence, the timing and kinematics of upper plate deformation, and the history of plate convergence along the Japan trench demonstrate that the onset of rapid fore-arc tectonic subsidence is contemporaneous with upper plate extension during the opening of the Sea of Japan and with an acceleration in convergence rate at the trench. In Plio-Quaternary time, relative uplift of the outer forearc is contemporaneous with contraction across the arc and a decrease in plate convergence rate. The coincidence of these changes across the forearc, arc, backarc system appears to require an explanation at the scale of the entire plate boundary. Similar observations along other western Pacific margins suggest that correlations between forearc subsidence and major changes in plate kinematics are the rule, rather than the exception. We suggest that a significant component of forearc subsidence at the northeast Japan margin is not the consequence of basal tectonic erosion, but instead reflects dynamic changes in plate boundary geometry driven by temporal variations in plate kinematics. If correct, this model requires a reconsideration of the mass balance and crustal recycling of continental crust at nonaccretionary margins. Key Points Forearc subsidence coeval with upper plate extension, increased convergence rate Regional forearc subsidence/uplift likely reflects plate boundary-scale dynamics Results imply basal tectonic erosion is less efficient than previously assume

Holocene slip rate along the Gyaring Co Fault, central Tibet

Although geodetic measurements of interseismic deformation in interior Tibet suggest slow strain accumulation, active slip along the right-lateral Gyaring Co Fault is suggested to be between 8 and 21 mm/yr. Reliable geologic constraints on the slip rate along this fault are sparse. Here we document 12 ± 2m of right-lateral displacement of lacustrine shorelines across the Gyaring Co Fault. Optically stimulated luminescence ages of the shorelines are tightly clustered between 4.1 and 4.4 ka. These data require an average slip rate of 2.2-3.2mm/yr along the central Gyaring Co Fault during the latter half of the Holocene. Consideration of seismic cycle effects allows the possibility of slightly higher average slip rates, up to 2.2-4.5mm/yr. Overall, our results suggest that the slip rate along the Gyaring Co Fault is similar to other strike-slip faults in interior Tibet, supporting the notion that active deformation in this region is distributed among numerous, slowly moving faults

Evaluating the size and extent of paleolakes in central Tibet during the late Pleistocene

Subhorizontal lake shorelines allow a geodynamic test of the size and extent of a hypothesized paleolake in central Tibet, the East Qiangtang Lake (EQL), during the last interglacial period (marine isotope stage (MIS) 5e). Reconstructions based on relict lake deposits suggest that the EQL would have been ~400 m deep and over ~66,000 km2. Models of flexural rebound driven by lake recession predict that shorelines near the EQL center, at the present-day location of Siling Co, would have rebounded 60–90 m above their initial elevation. New 36Cl chronology of the highest relict shorelines around Siling Co indicates that they reflect lake levels between 110 and 190 ka. These shorelines, however, are presently >300 m below their predicted elevations, implying a substantially smaller water load. Our results reveal that the expansion of Tibetan lakes during MIS 5e was relatively limited. Instead, individual lakes were supplied by river networks, much as they are today

Three dimensional thermal modeling of the California upper mantle; a slab window vs. stalled slab

In order to gain a better understanding of the behavior of microplates after their subduction, we studied two end-member scenarios for the post-subduction history of two offshore California microplates. In the first scenario, Monterey and Arguello microplate remnants are present today below the North America Plate, while in the second scenario subducted microplate remnants are absent. 3-D numerical modeling of the thermal evolution implied by these scenarios results in two different present-day thermal structures of the central and southern California upper mantle. By comparing the model-predicted surface heat flow values and seismic velocities to heat flow data and tomography, we find that we cannot discriminate between the two scenarios as they both are consistent with the data. This result means that the present-day upper mantle temperature field is relatively insensitive to the assumed microplate scenarios. A slabless window is not needed for the generation of partial melt either, which is consistent with earlier 2-D studies for this region

The Geodetic Signature of the Earthquake Cycle at Subduction Zones : Model Constraints on the Deep Processes

Recent megathrust events in Tohoku (Japan), Maule (Chile), and Sumatra (Indonesia) were well recorded. Much has been learned about the dominant physical processes in megathrust zones: (partial) locking of the plate interface, detailed coseismic slip, relocking, afterslip, viscoelastic mantle relaxation, and interseismic loading. These and older observations show complex spatial and temporal patterns in crustal deformation and displacement, and significant differences among different margins. A key question is whether these differences reflect variations in the underlying processes, like differences in locking, or the margin geometry, or whether they are a consequence of the stage in the earthquake cycle of the margin. Quantitative models can connect these plate boundary processes to surficial and far-field observations. We use relatively simple, cyclic geodynamic models to isolate the first-order geodetic signature of the megathrust cycle. Coseismic and subsequent slip on the subduction interface is dynamically (and consistently) driven. A review of global preseismic, coseismic, and postseismic geodetic observations, and of their fit to the model predictions, indicates that similar physical processes are active at different margins. Most of the observed variability between the individual margins appears to be controlled by their different stages in the earthquake cycle. The modeling results also provide a possible explanation for observations of tensile faulting aftershocks and tensile cracking of the overriding plate, which are puzzling in the context of convergence/compression. From the inversion of our synthetic GNSS velocities we find that geodetic observations may incorrectly suggest weak locking of some margins, for example, the west Aleutian margin

The Geodetic Signature of the Earthquake Cycle at Subduction Zones : Model Constraints on the Deep Processes

Recent megathrust events in Tohoku (Japan), Maule (Chile), and Sumatra (Indonesia) were well recorded. Much has been learned about the dominant physical processes in megathrust zones: (partial) locking of the plate interface, detailed coseismic slip, relocking, afterslip, viscoelastic mantle relaxation, and interseismic loading. These and older observations show complex spatial and temporal patterns in crustal deformation and displacement, and significant differences among different margins. A key question is whether these differences reflect variations in the underlying processes, like differences in locking, or the margin geometry, or whether they are a consequence of the stage in the earthquake cycle of the margin. Quantitative models can connect these plate boundary processes to surficial and far-field observations. We use relatively simple, cyclic geodynamic models to isolate the first-order geodetic signature of the megathrust cycle. Coseismic and subsequent slip on the subduction interface is dynamically (and consistently) driven. A review of global preseismic, coseismic, and postseismic geodetic observations, and of their fit to the model predictions, indicates that similar physical processes are active at different margins. Most of the observed variability between the individual margins appears to be controlled by their different stages in the earthquake cycle. The modeling results also provide a possible explanation for observations of tensile faulting aftershocks and tensile cracking of the overriding plate, which are puzzling in the context of convergence/compression. From the inversion of our synthetic GNSS velocities we find that geodetic observations may incorrectly suggest weak locking of some margins, for example, the west Aleutian margin

Paraoxonase activity in sera from Piaractus mesopotamicus Holmberg (Characidae) and Hypostomus punctatus Valenciennes (Siluridae)

A paraoxonase activity present in serum of two Brazilian fish species was consistently assayed at pH 8.5 using 7.5 mM paraoxon final concentration. The paraoxonase activity was more activated by 0.5 M NaCl in serum of Piaractus mesopotanricus Holmberg, 1887 (pacu) than in serum of Hypostomus punctatus Valenciennes, 1840 (cascudo). Apparent values of K M were 3.3 x 10-3 M for cascudo and pacu paraoxonase activity in the presence of 0.5 M NaCl. Apparent maximum velocity values calculated in the presence of 0.5 M NaCl were 6.1 and 6.5 nmole/min/mL of serum for cascudo and pacu, respectively. Vmax/K M ratio values of determinations in the presence and absence of 0.5 M NaCl showed that NaCl had a more evident effect on increasing the affinity of serum paraoxonase for paraoxon in pacu serum. Young specimens of pacu showed a marked decreased paraoxonase serum activity when kept in tanks treated with 0.25 ppm methyl-parathion