Organic farming in the uplands – appraisal of a development programme

There is a widespread assumption that conversion of livestock production systems in the uplands can be achieved with minimal change to existing hill farming practices and yet still deliver environmental and financial benefits. This assumption needs to be examined because conversion of upland farm enterprises poses particular issues for organic farming, Frost (1999). The certifying bodies acknowledge that some of these issues are not adequately covered by the current standards for organic agriculture. The development of a hill farming organic system at Pwllpeiran was established to provide evidence for such an appraisal, Powell (1999). Appraisal of the project indicates that organic beef and sheep production can be a viable option in the uplands. Long term maintenance of clover content, the relationship between organic production, environmental conservation and veterinary treatment of livestock remain issues that require longer term study

Organic Farming at ADAS PwllPeiran 1993 - 2001

Agriculture at Pwllpeiran has a long history. Pwllpeiran was eventually established as an Experimental Husbandry Farm in 1955. During the following forty years, work at the farm achieved substantial improvements in the quality and quantity of lamb and beef produced, but by the turn of the millennium the emphasis of agricultural policy was turning away from increased livestock production per se and towards the development of environmentally sensitive farming systems. The 1,118 ha Pwllpeiran Research Farm is now managed by ADAS Wales. The land is rented from the National Assembly for Wales and the Forestry Commission. All of the land is under a ‘whole farm’ Environmentally Sensitive Area agreement. The results from the Pwllpeiran unit underline the difficulties of organic farming in a severely disadvantaged upland area. The unit’s performance demonstrates the potential for production of organic lamb and beef but it also indicates some of the limitations on organic production. Organic farming theory and practice developed primarily in the lowlands and on mixed farms and these origins remain clearly evident in current standards for organic agriculture. Farming in the hills and uplands is, however, in many ways distinct. The lack of opportunity to grow arable crops, the difficulties of growing legumes such as clover and the shortages of farmyard manure, organic fertilisers and farm produced feed all represent particular challenges to the organic hill farm. At Pwllpeiran, production has been constrained by declining soil fertility which in turn has had an adverse effect on grass / clover production and thus on herbage availability and forage conservation. The system operated to date has not produced enough FYM to maintain soil nutrient levels in all of the organic pastures, a major constraint on the level of production. This leads to two important conclusions regarding organic farming in the uplands. The first is the importance of regular and systematic soil sampling to identify possible nutrient deficiencies. The second is the need for sector bodies to recognise that organic farming in severely disadvantaged high rainfall hill areas may require more regular input of permitted P and K fertilisers than lowland and mixed farms. Without such inputs production levels are likely to fall in the medium to long-term and more work needs to done on the best method of supplying these nutrients to the organic hill farm. At Pwllpeiran the decision was taken to accept a lower stocking rate on the organic unit, and to maintain financial performance by generating extra income from ESA agri environment payments and organic premiums. The unit’s experience demonstrates that combining organic farming with environmental conservation schemes on the mountain farm may add to the unit’s income, but environmental prescriptions will also place further limits on production. The balance of advantages to the organic hill farm offered by entry into an environmental management scheme needs to be weighed carefully. The future viability of the Pwllpeiran organic unit depends on maintaining farm income levels by optimising herbage and forage production and utilisation, and by controlling input costs, and producing quality beef and lamb. The impact of other factors like market prices, global trade and government policy will prove equally important. Control of these lies beyond the farm gate

Deconstructing the organic movement

This report was presented at the UK Organic Research 2002 Conference. Organic agriculture has sought to establish its scientific validity and its origins. Conford (2001) claims that these can be traced to the 1920s, and that Anglican Christianity is pivotal to its history. However, organic agriculture takes many forms and the role of religion in society has changed. In the UK, a new incarnation of organic farming occurred in the late twentieth century as part of a wider response to environmental issues

Spending on Shoppable Services in Health Care

This issue brief examines health care spending on shoppable services in 2011. Contrary to expectations, giving consumers prices so they can shop for health care services may only have a modest effect on reducing health spending.Key Takeaways Include:In 2011, about 43% of the $524.2 billion spent on health care services for commercially insured people was considered shoppable.About 15$81 billion -- of the total spent on health care for the commercially insured was spent out of pocket.Of the total amount spent out-of-pocket by consumers, about 7% -- $27.7 billion -- was spent on shoppable services.Most out-of-pocket dollars (44%) were spent on shoppable ambulatory doctor services

Organic tree propagation under Welsh nursery conditions

The demand for organically raised tree and hedging plants had been reported from organic farmers in Tir Gofal, as well as within the landscaping industry. Although there are a number of plant raising nurseries producing organically raised plants for vegetable and fruit production, there are no tree nurseries producing to organic standards. Nursery tree growers were concerned that there was currently too little known about the performance of tree seedlings in organic substrates (e.g. in root-trainers), nor about the nutrient supply to seedlings under organic regimes, nor about diseases control (especially fungal diseases such as mildew). Therefore, the development of three hedging species; Hawthorn, Hazel, Blackthorn, were tested for two growing systems in five different composts types; Ystwyth nursery mix, Peat based, Peat free based, Wood chip based, Organically certified green waste based. The results of these trials are reported here

Controlling Ectoparasites on Welsh Organic Sheep Farms

1. Organophosphate (OP) based dips offer a broad spectrum control against all major ectoparasites in the UK. However, there is continuing controversy over the safety to dip operators and the environment. The use of OPs is prohibited by organic standards, primarily because of concerns about mammalian toxicity. 2. Organic farmers are permitted to use synthetic pyrethroids (SPs)(dip products and pour-on products) and/or macrocyclic lactones (injectable products) to treat/control ectoparasites providing a derogation has been obtained from the certifying body. 3. SPs have been shown to be considerably more toxic to aquatic organisms than OPs. The environmental impact of SPs is not limited to levels in dip but also to residues in sheep fleeces. SPs may be removed from the wool by climatic conditions and then deposited in the local environment. 4. The Environment Agency have indicated that the majority of sheep dip pollution incidents involve SP dips. Concerns have been raised that as organic farmers can only use SP based dips they may be contributing to the higher levels of SP based pollution incidents. 5. There is little information as to current practices amongst organic sheep farmers to control/treat ectoparasites or on how these farmers dispose of the spent dip. In order to address this lack of information a survey was carried out by ADAS Pwllpeiran to investigate current practices amongst sheep farmers in Wales. For comparison purposes both conventional and organic farmers were included in the survey. 6. In total, 134 questionnaires were completed with 96 completed by conventional sheep farmers and the remaining 38 being completed by either in-conversion organic farmers or fully registered organic farmers. 7. Results showed that 58% of organic farmers surveyed treated their flocks for ectoparasites compared to 67% of conventional farmers. 8. Of the organic farmers surveyed, 52.6% listed flystrike as a parasite for which they treated their flocks. This was comparable to conventional farmers where 58.3% listed flystrike. Only 21.1% of organic farmers surveyed listed scab compared to 61.5% of conventional farmers. Less than 10% of both conventional and organic farmers surveyed treated for other ectoparasites. Those who did listed lice and ticks as the main ectoparasites. 9. Despite a large percentage of conventional farmers listing scab as an ectoparasite to be treated, only 11.5% of those surveyed treated for ‘scab only’ compared to 51.0% who treated for scab in combination with other ectoparasite control. A similar pattern was seen amongst organic farmers surveyed, where only 2.6% treated for ‘scab only’ whereas 18.4% treated for scab in combination with other ectoparasite control. 10. Of the organic farmers surveyed, 36.8% treated for ‘flystrike only’ compared to 7.3% of conventional farmers. 11. Despite other ectoparasites such as lice and ticks being listed by both conventional and organic farmers neither of these two parasites were treated singly but were always treated in combination with other ectoparasites. 12. Of conventional farmers surveyed who treated for ectoparasite control, 76.1% listed plunge dipping as the preferred dipping method compared to only 22.7% of the organic farmers surveyed who treated for ectoparasites. 13. The use of pour-on products was higher amongst organic farmers with 54.5% using pour-ons as a treatment method compared to 16.5% of conventional farmers. 14. Less than 5% of the organic farmers who treated for ectoparasites used a combination of treatments compared to 19% of conventional farmers who treated for ectoparasites. 15. When asked how often they treated for ectoparasites, 54% of organic farmers treated once a year compared to 42% of conventional farmers. 27% of organic farmers treated twice a year whereas 52% of conventional farmers treated twice a year. 14% of organic farmers treated three or more times a year compared to 7% of conventional farmers. 16. All organic farmers who carried out plunge dipping operations used a SP based product however of the conventional farmers who carried out plunge dipping, 39% used an SP based product. Overall, 16% of organic farmers surveyed used an SP based dip product compared to 24% of conventional farmers surveyed. Of all conventional farmers surveyed 38% used an OP based dip product. 17. Where farmers carried out plunge dipping, 53% of conventional farmers diluted spent dip before spreading to land compared to 83% of organic farmers who carried out plunge dipping operations. Of all the farmers surveyed who carried out plunge dipping only 1 treated dip with slaked lime before spreading. 18. Of all organic farmers surveyed, 5% used a mobile dipping contractor compared to 23% of conventional farmers surveyed. 19. Where contractors were used on organic holdings they were also responsible for the disposal of spent dip. The contractor was responsible for the disposal of dip on 74% of conventional holdings using contractors for dipping. 20. On 42% of the holdings using contractors, the spent dip was removed from the farm whereas on 32% of holdings the spent dip was spread on the farm land. 26% of farmers using contractors in this survey did not know how the contractor disposed of spent dip. 21. The percentage of farmers treating their flocks for ectoparasite infestations is similar for organic (58%) and conventional (69%) sheep farmers however there is a marked difference in the species of ectoparasites treated. 22. Of the conventional farmers who treated their flocks for ectoparasites, 86% listed scab as a major parasite compared to only 36% of organic farmers who also treated their flocks for ectoparasites. 23. Overall, only 3% of the organic farmers surveyed treated their sheep specifically for scab, compared to 11% of conventional farmers surveyed. 24. Of organic farmers surveyed, 37% treated their flocks specifically for blowfly strike compared to only 7% of conventional farmers surveyed. 25. Of the conventional farmers surveyed, 51% treated their flocks for more than one ectoparasite infestations compared to 18% of organic farmers surveyed. 26. From the evidence of several of the completed survey forms some farmers appeared to be using incorrect treatment methods and some were using multiple treatment methods to treat ectoparasite infestations. The use of incorrect treatments or multiple treatments is largely a reflection of the plethora of products available and suggests a lack of understanding as to which products are appropriate and licensed for the treatment of specific ectoparasites. 27. The survey found that fewer organic sheep farmers use SP dips than conventional sheep farmers do. As there are fewer organic sheep farmers overall, there is little evidence that organic sheep farmers contribute disproportionately to the level of SP based pollution incidents. 28. Summary of Recommendations: A. A further in-depth survey would be valuable to elucidate the extent of the scab problem in the national organic flock. B. Both organic and conventional farmers have difficulty in selecting the best/ most appropriate treatment for their flocks. An educational campaign would help to remedy this problem. C. Annual training courses for certifying bodies and advisors to keep up to date with developments in research and products are recommended. D. Given the potential for SP dips to cause major environmental damage if disposed of incorrectly it is a mandatory requirement that organic farmers are licensed by EA to dispose of spent dip. Inspectors should ensure cross compliance where organic farmers are using dip. E. Certifying bodies need to consider all the available evidence as to what chemicals should be permitted to treat scab and other ectoparasites and where appropriate make alterations to the standards. F. Inspection of dips facilities and EA licence should be part of the annual inspection procedures. G. Certification bodies should collate information on dipping practices and dip disposal. H. Where a pollution incident occurs on an organic holding this should be reported to the relevant certifying body. I. Development and evaluation of IPM programmes should be assessed as a management tool to reduce use of chemical treatments whilst promoting good animal husbandry and management. IPM programmes should be incorporated with animal health plans

LGBT Equality and Sexual Racism

Bigots such as the trial judge in Loving have long invoked religion to justify discrimination. We agree with other scholars that neither religion nor artistic freedom justifies letting businesses discriminate. However, we also want to make manifest the tension between the public posture of LGBT-rights litigants and the practices of some LGBT people who discriminate based on race in selecting partners. We argue that some white people’s aversion to dating and forming relationships with people of color is a form of racism, and this sexual racism is inconsistent with the spirit of Loving. Part I provides a review of empirical literature on the prevalence of racial preferences in intimate relationships and shows that racial preferences are particularly pronounced among gay men. Part II supplements this overview with a qualitative exploration of how race informed the intimate experiences of people who sat for interviews as part of our ongoing study, LGBT Relationships and Well-Being. We also offer a theory that may partially explain sexual racism in the LGBT community. Specifically, exposure to mainstream gay culture may teach sexual minority men that race and desire are closely intertwined. In Part III, we propose ideas for further research, including a study that would test our theory

High Speed Peltier Calorimeter for the Calibration of High Bandwidth Power Measurement Equipment

Accurate power measurements of electronic components operating at high frequencies are vital in determining where power losses occur in a system such as a power converter. Such power measurements must be carried out with equipment that can accurately measure real power at high frequency. We present the design of a high speed calorimeter to address this requirement, capable of reaching a steady state in less than 10 minutes. The system uses Peltier thermoelectric coolers to remove heat generated in a load resistance, and was calibrated against known real power measurements using an artificial neural network. A dead zone controller was used to achieve stable power measurements. The calibration was validated and shown to have an absolute accuracy of +/-8 mW (95% confidence interval) for measurements of real power from 0.1 to 5 W

Environmental and biodiversity impacts of organic farming in the hills and uplands of Wales

1. Organic farming is based on principles of co-existence with natural systems, the minimisation of pollution and damage to the environment, and the promotion of the health of soil, plant and animal to produce healthy food with high standards of animal welfare and respect for the wider social and ecological impacts of the agricultural system. 2. Organic Farming has become an important aspect of EU agri-environment policy. Since the implementation of EC Reg. 2078/92 the EU promotes organic farming explicitly on its positive effects on the environment. 3. The environmental and biodiversity benefits of organic systems in the lowlands for mixed farming is generally accepted (Shepherd, 2003) but similar benefits for upland systems have not been identified. This report has been produced by OCW with funding from CCW to address this gap. Where relevant, means to ensure the beneficial impacts through changes to agri-environment schemes, organic standards, and education and dissemination are identified. 4. Hill and uplands are characterised as areas over 200m above sea level where the physical landscape results in production constraints. 5. Biodiversity losses linked to changes in hill and upland agriculture include the erosion of genetic diversity in farmed livestock and crops as well as in wildlife and flora, a reduction in habitat, soil and wildlife diversity and the loss of local knowledge and farming culture. 6. The organic approach to sustainable agriculture in hill or upland systems is through the use of multi species swards and mixed stocking. 7. The report identifies potential points of difference between organic and conventional management practices with regard to hill and upland farming and highlights research requirements to confirm or explore those potentials. 8. Conventional farms can adopt any or all of the practices of the organic farming system, but the engagement with the entire system and annual inspections are specific to the organic farmer. 9. The impacts are not just determined by the system of organic regulations and but also by the management ability and technical skills of the farmer and workers. 10. The practices on organic livestock farms identified that may differ from conventional and have direct biodiversity or environmental impacts are: lower stocking rates (overall manure loading maximum of 170kg/N/ha/yr); an adjustment of the stocking balance (increasing ratio of cattle to sheep); keeping indigenous breeds and strains adapted to the environmental conditions on the farm; limitation on products to control external parasites; reduction and restriction on the use of prophylactic veterinary medicines; the use of foragebased diets; storage and use of slurries, manures and composts, and constraints on the import and export of nutrients. 11. Organic practices in management of grassland and crops identified that may differ from conventional and have direct biodiversity or environmental impacts are: cessation of N fertiliser use; restriction on P & K use; use of lime to maintain pH; use of clovers and herbs in grass leys; cessation of use of chemical pesticides and all herbicides; mechanical and manual weed control and sensitive and timely cultivations; the use of mixed farm systems and rotations on in-bye land; the use of cover crops and undersowing; the use of green manures. 12. Organic regulations do not require habitat creation, but standards state, “that concern for the environment should manifest”…“in high standards of conservation management throughout the organic holding”. Discussion 13. Apart from practices that impact directly on biodiversity or the environment, each management decision on the farm will have knock-on effects that have their own consequences, for example welfare standards for livestock require bedding materials and greater housing space. 14. Organic farms operating solely in the hills and uplands can only be part of a system. Use of in-bye land or having a relationship with lowland holdings to provide winter-feed and forage is necessary to comply with regulations. This will increase the amount of lowland managed organically, bringing widely recognised environmental benefits. 15. Organic agriculture is, by legal definition, a system of production and is based on principles and uses practices adopted to optimise the health of the system. Any farmer may adopt individual practices, and the Tir Gofal scheme provides an opportunity for farmers to provide positive conservation measures, whether conventional or organic. Farming under the EU Regulation defining Organic farming provides assurance to the end consumer that the system used to produce or process the food product was according to that system. This provides a reliable means for consumers to support a system of agriculture that fits more closely with their expectations than intensive systems. 16. Any advantages of lower stocking rates and mixed stocking will only be maintained while organic farms are viable. Organic labelling provides an opportunity for consumers to make a positive choice for high welfare, environmentally benign systems; however the difficulties of marketing, the lack of consumer awareness of food production issues and unwillingness to pay are barriers to access to premium markets for many producers. Conclusions: 17. The potential benefits of individual practices outlined in the document are often clear, but there are currently few data to confirm the extent of some of the practices that may have most beneficial impact. The need for data on actual practices of the organic farmers in the hills and uplands is therefore highlighted. 18. Few Standards changes are recommended, however the monitoring of derogations to standards and use of restricted veterinary inputs is recommended. 19. Research and development needs, technical, education and dissemination, and agri-environment policy issues which may establish, ensure, or enhance the environmental and biodiversity impacts of organic farming in the hills and uplands are outlined. 20. Infrastructure work to integrate hill and upland and lowland systems is necessary to facilitate organic farming in the uplands; this may assist the viability of lowland organic holdings: the environmental benefits of which are established

Livestock breeds and Organic farming systems

Organic livestock farming has grown in Wales in recent years. It is focused on producing animals from a predominantly forage-based system, with an emphasis on maintaining animal health through improved welfare and a reduction in the use of routine, conventional veterinary treatments. Breeding and feeding are important factors of the health and welfare of farm animals in organic systems. The guidelines of EU regulation (EC) 1804/1999 address the issue of sourcing of (breeding) stock. Moreover, only activities such as the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and embryo transfer are excluded, and few provisions are included that concern breeding. A number of breeds used in conventional farming could be considered as ’high maintenance’ animals requiring regular, prophylactic veterinary treatments and high-energy concentrated feeds to meet their potential. Such breeds may be unable to fulfil their potential performance under an organic system. A number of breeding strategies are outlined briefly, including traits that are important for organic production systems. Sire reference schemes have been introduced on organic farms in recent years. There is an increase in conservation grazing. Some breeds adapt well to these systems; especially local/native breeds since they utilise lower quality feed, are more resilient to climatic stress, and are more resistant to local parasites and diseases. Several actions are being, and have been, undertaken to maintain breed diversity. However, the need for a genetic pool of breeding stock from which to select is not reflected in the national strategies for livestock production. A Countryside Council for Wales (CCW) report (Yarwood and Evans, 2002) identified 18 breeds of sheep and 3 breeds of cattle associated with Wales. Several surveys have shown that, on organic farms, the Suffolk, Lleyn and the Texel are the main sheep breeds. The most popular beef breeds on organic farms are Welsh Black, Charolais crossbreed, Limousin, South Devon crossbreed, Aberdeen Angus and Hereford crossbreed. On organic farms, more native breeds seem to be used than on conventional farms. A few of these breeds are further discussed. Consumer demand is a significant driver of policy and standards, and value for money is still a major factor in determining consumer buying behaviour. The demand for lean meat and for homogeneity of both fresh and processed products, particularly in the major supermarkets, impacts on breeding policies. Research has shown that Welsh consumers prefer organic Welsh meat and milk. Economic viability of beef, sheep and milk production depends, in many cases, on subsidies. An increasing number of breed societies in Wales and the UK have become involved in promoting their breed as a brand. However, a recent Welsh survey showed that 13% of organically-produced lambs were still being sold as nonorganic due to finishing specifications (41%), a lack of organic market outlets (54%) and other reasons (4%), such as a lack of organic abattoirs (OCW, 2006). As market requirements are standardised and allow for little differentiation, some traditional and rare breeds face marketing difficulties. Furthermore, loss of small-scale abattoirs can reduce the ability for differentiation of breeds to enter niche markets. Large-scale abattoirs use standardised methods, which do not allow for differentiation. As mentioned in a report from DEFRA (2006), the national strategies for livestock production do not reflect the need for a genetic pool of breeding stock. Although breeding has to focus on what the market wants (mass or niche market), other factors also have to be taken into account. The choice of breeds/breeding used in the organic livestock sector needs to ensure the profitability of the farm, safeguard animal health and welfare, focus on conserving genetic diversity, and promote human health. The various breeds outlined in the report show various benefits. It is important to conserve, develop and utilise local breeds that are genetically adapted to their environment