Formation of bulk-laminated materials by localized deformation during ECAP of an AA6060 aluminum alloy

This paper addresses localized plastic flow during equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) of an AA6060 aluminum alloy. We observe an alternating formation of shear bands and matrix bands during ECAP that leads to pronounced strain partitioning without cracking. Local deformation is analyzed by considering the distortion of indents along flow lines in the center of a split billet. We estimate equivalent strains of about 3.6 inside the shear bands, whereas plastic deformation in the adjacent matrix bands is almost negligible. Microstructural analysis by SEM and STEM confirms that the shear bands exhibit typical features of severely plastically deformed microstructures at the onset of forming an ultrafine-grained microstructure. We further present statistics of band widths, and we discuss the roles material hardening as well as ECAP die geometry (in terms of the inner die radius) in facilitating the recurrent localized deformation that, in the absence of crack nucleation, leads to the production of an interesting and novel type of bulk-laminated materials by ECAP

Formation of bulk-laminated materials by localized deformation during ECAP of an AA6060 aluminum alloy

This paper addresses localized plastic flow during equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) of an AA6060 aluminum alloy. We observe an alternating formation of shear bands and matrix bands during ECAP that leads to pronounced strain partitioning without cracking. Local deformation is analyzed by considering the distortion of indents along flow lines in the center of a split billet. We estimate equivalent strains of about 3.6 inside the shear bands, whereas plastic deformation in the adjacent matrix bands is almost negligible. Microstructural analysis by SEM and STEM confirms that the shear bands exhibit typical features of severely plastically deformed microstructures at the onset of forming an ultrafine-grained microstructure. We further present statistics of band widths, and we discuss the roles material hardening as well as ECAP die geometry (in terms of the inner die radius) in facilitating the recurrent localized deformation that, in the absence of crack nucleation, leads to the production of an interesting and novel type of bulk-laminated materials by ECAP

Influence of Extrusion Temperature on the Aging Behavior and Mechanical Properties of an AA6060 Aluminum Alloy

Processing of AA6060 aluminum alloys for semi-products usually includes hot extrusion with subsequent artificial aging for several hours. Processing below the recrystallization temperature allows for an increased strength at a significantly reduced annealing time by combining strain hardening and precipitation hardening. In this study, we investigate the potential of cold and warm extrusion as alternative processing routes for high strength aluminum semi-products. Cast billets of the age hardening aluminum alloy AA6060 were solution annealed and then extruded at room temperature, 120 or 170 °C, followed by an aging treatment. Electron microscopy and mechanical testing were performed on the as-extruded as well as the annealed materials to characterize the resulting microstructural features and mechanical properties. All of the extruded profiles exhibit similar, strongly graded microstructures. The strain gradients and the varying extrusion temperatures lead to different stages of dynamic precipitation in the as-extruded materials, which significantly alter the subsequent aging behavior and mechanical properties. The experimental results demonstrate that extrusion below recrystallization temperature allows for high strength at a massively reduced aging time due to dynamic precipitation and/or accelerated precipitation kinetics. The highest strength and ductility were achieved by extrusion at 120 °C and subsequent short-time aging

On the PLC Effect in a Particle Reinforced AA2017 Alloy

The Portevin–Le Châtelier (PLC) effect often results in serrated plastic flow during tensile testing of aluminum alloys. Its magnitude and characteristics are often sensitive to a material’s heat treatment condition and to the applied strain rate and deformation temperature. In this study, we analyze the plastic deformation behavior of an age-hardenable Al-Cu alloy (AA2017) and of a particle reinforced AA2017 alloy (10 vol. % SiC) in two different conditions: solid solution annealed (W) and naturally aged (T4). For the W-condition of both materials, pronounced serrated flow is observed, while both T4-conditions do not show distinct serrations. It is also found that a reduction of the testing temperature (−60 °C, −196 °C) shifts the onset of serrations to larger plastic strains and additionally reduces their amplitude. Furthermore, compressive jump tests (with alternating strain rates) at room temperature confirm a negative strain rate sensitivity for the W-condition. The occurring PLC effect, as well as the propagation of the corresponding PLC bands in the W-condition, is finally characterized by digital image correlation (DIC) and by acoustic emission measurements during tensile testing. The formation of PLC bands in the reinforced material is accompanied by distinct stress drops as well as by perceptible acoustic emission, and the experimental results clearly show that only type A PLC bands occur during testing at room temperature (RT)

Designing (Ultra)Fine-Grained High-Entropy Alloys by Spark Plasma Sintering and Equal-Channel Angular Pressing

Single-phase, face-centered cubic (FCC) high-entropy alloys (HEA) are promising materials for future applications. In order to improve the mechanical properties, especially the tensile strength of these materials, this study focuses on the combination of spark plasma sintering (SPS) and equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP). The initial fine-grained microstructure produced by SPS is further refined by ECAP in a 90°-die. Optical microscopy and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) confirm this considerable grain refinement, leads to a grain size below 1 µm after 1 ECAP pass. An alternating arrangement of fine-grained areas and much coarser regions, aligned under an angle of approximately 27°, is found. Moreover, a first microstructural investigation of the twin structure is conducted. The mechanical behavior was investigated by hardness measurements and tensile testing. Both the hardness and tensile strength are remarkably increased after ECAP. In contrast, the uniform elongation and elongation at fracture are significantly reduced due to the strengthening mechanisms of strain hardening and grain refinement. It is concluded that the combination of SPS and ECAP is an attractive approach for designing (ultra)fine-grained HEAs with superior properties. The investigated techniques could be applied to understand the underlying microstructural mechanisms

Effect of Strain Localization on Pitting Corrosion of an AlMgSi0.5 Alloy

The corrosion susceptibility of an age-hardened aluminum alloy in different processing conditions, especially after a single pass of equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP), is examined. The main question addressed is how corrosive attack is changed by strain localization. For that purpose, an AlMgSi0.5 alloy with a strain localized microstructure containing alternating shear bands was subjected to potentiodynamic polarization on a macro-scale and micro-scale using the micro-capillary technique. Pitting potentials and the corrosion appearance (pit depth, corroded area fractions and volumes) are discussed with respect to microstructural evolution due to casting, extrusion and ECAP. Size, shape and orientation of grains, constituent particle fragmentation, cell size and microstrain were analyzed. Stable pitting of shear bands results in less positive potentials compared to adjacent microstructure. More pits emerge in the shear bands, but the pit depth is reduced significantly. This is attributed to higher microstrains influencing the stability of the passivation layer and the reduced size of grains and constituent particles. The size of the crystallographic pits is associated with the deformation-induced cell size of the aluminum alloy

Strain Localization during Equal-Channel Angular Pressing Analyzed by Finite Element Simulations

Equal-Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP) is a method used to introduce severe plastic deformation into a metallic billet without changing its geometry. In special cases, strain localization occurs and a pattern consisting of regions with high and low deformation (so-called shear and matrix bands) can emerge. This paper studies this phenomenon numerically adopting two-dimensional finite element simulations of one ECAP pass. The mechanical behavior of aluminum is modeled using phenomenological plasticity theory with isotropic or kinematic hardening. The effects of the two different strain hardening types are investigated numerically by systematic parameter studies: while isotropic hardening only causes minor fluctuations in the plastic strain fields, a material with high initial hardening rate and sufficient strain hardening capacity can exhibit pronounced localized deformation after ECAP. The corresponding finite element simulation results show a regular pattern of shear and matrix bands. This result is confirmed experimentally by ECAP-processing of AA6060 material in a severely cold worked condition, where microstructural analysis also reveals the formation of shear and matrix bands. Excellent agreement is found between the experimental and numerical results in terms of shear and matrix band width and length scale. The simulations provide additional insights regarding the evolution of the strain and stress states in shear and matrix bands